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Message-ID: <CAB=+i9Sppc-ZYsecw=N0QYezk9D-=izFB+HL6A-TxM=PnL76bg@mail.gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 18 Jul 2023 14:46:07 +0900
From: Hyeonggon Yoo <42.hyeyoo@...il.com>
To: "GONG, Ruiqi" <gongruiqi@...weicloud.com>
Cc: Vlastimil Babka <vbabka@...e.cz>,
Andrew Morton <akpm@...ux-foundation.org>,
Joonsoo Kim <iamjoonsoo.kim@....com>,
David Rientjes <rientjes@...gle.com>,
Pekka Enberg <penberg@...nel.org>,
Christoph Lameter <cl@...ux.com>, Tejun Heo <tj@...nel.org>,
Dennis Zhou <dennis@...nel.org>,
Alexander Potapenko <glider@...gle.com>,
Marco Elver <elver@...gle.com>,
Kees Cook <keescook@...omium.org>,
Jann Horn <jannh@...gle.com>,
Roman Gushchin <roman.gushchin@...ux.dev>,
Dmitry Vyukov <dvyukov@...gle.com>,
Alexander Lobakin <aleksander.lobakin@...el.com>,
Pedro Falcato <pedro.falcato@...il.com>,
Paul Moore <paul@...l-moore.com>,
James Morris <jmorris@...ei.org>,
"Serge E . Hallyn" <serge@...lyn.com>,
Wang Weiyang <wangweiyang2@...wei.com>,
Xiu Jianfeng <xiujianfeng@...wei.com>, linux-mm@...ck.org,
linux-hardening@...r.kernel.org, linux-kernel@...r.kernel.org,
gongruiqi1@...wei.com
Subject: Re: [PATCH v5] Randomized slab caches for kmalloc()
On Fri, Jul 14, 2023 at 3:40 PM GONG, Ruiqi <gongruiqi@...weicloud.com> wrote:
>
> When exploiting memory vulnerabilities, "heap spraying" is a common
> technique targeting those related to dynamic memory allocation (i.e. the
> "heap"), and it plays an important role in a successful exploitation.
> Basically, it is to overwrite the memory area of vulnerable object by
> triggering allocation in other subsystems or modules and therefore
> getting a reference to the targeted memory location. It's usable on
> various types of vulnerablity including use after free (UAF), heap out-
> of-bound write and etc.
>
> There are (at least) two reasons why the heap can be sprayed: 1) generic
> slab caches are shared among different subsystems and modules, and
> 2) dedicated slab caches could be merged with the generic ones.
> Currently these two factors cannot be prevented at a low cost: the first
> one is a widely used memory allocation mechanism, and shutting down slab
> merging completely via `slub_nomerge` would be overkill.
>
> To efficiently prevent heap spraying, we propose the following approach:
> to create multiple copies of generic slab caches that will never be
> merged, and random one of them will be used at allocation. The random
> selection is based on the address of code that calls `kmalloc()`, which
> means it is static at runtime (rather than dynamically determined at
> each time of allocation, which could be bypassed by repeatedly spraying
> in brute force). In other words, the randomness of cache selection will
> be with respect to the code address rather than time, i.e. allocations
> in different code paths would most likely pick different caches,
> although kmalloc() at each place would use the same cache copy whenever
> it is executed. In this way, the vulnerable object and memory allocated
> in other subsystems and modules will (most probably) be on different
> slab caches, which prevents the object from being sprayed.
>
> Meanwhile, the static random selection is further enhanced with a
> per-boot random seed, which prevents the attacker from finding a usable
> kmalloc that happens to pick the same cache with the vulnerable
> subsystem/module by analyzing the open source code. In other words, with
> the per-boot seed, the random selection is static during each time the
> system starts and runs, but not across different system startups.
>
> The overhead of performance has been tested on a 40-core x86 server by
> comparing the results of `perf bench all` between the kernels with and
> without this patch based on the latest linux-next kernel, which shows
> minor difference. A subset of benchmarks are listed below:
>
> sched/ sched/ syscall/ mem/ mem/
> messaging pipe basic memcpy memset
> (sec) (sec) (sec) (GB/sec) (GB/sec)
>
> control1 0.019 5.459 0.733 15.258789 51.398026
> control2 0.019 5.439 0.730 16.009221 48.828125
> control3 0.019 5.282 0.735 16.009221 48.828125
> control_avg 0.019 5.393 0.733 15.759077 49.684759
>
> experiment1 0.019 5.374 0.741 15.500992 46.502976
> experiment2 0.019 5.440 0.746 16.276042 51.398026
> experiment3 0.019 5.242 0.752 15.258789 51.398026
> experiment_avg 0.019 5.352 0.746 15.678608 49.766343
>
> The overhead of memory usage was measured by executing `free` after boot
> on a QEMU VM with 1GB total memory, and as expected, it's positively
> correlated with # of cache copies:
>
> control 4 copies 8 copies 16 copies
>
> total 969.8M 968.2M 968.2M 968.2M
> used 20.0M 21.9M 24.1M 26.7M
> free 936.9M 933.6M 931.4M 928.6M
> available 932.2M 928.8M 926.6M 923.9M
>
> Co-developed-by: Xiu Jianfeng <xiujianfeng@...wei.com>
> Signed-off-by: Xiu Jianfeng <xiujianfeng@...wei.com>
> Signed-off-by: GONG, Ruiqi <gongruiqi@...weicloud.com>
> Reviewed-by: Kees Cook <keescook@...omium.org>
> ---
>
> v5:
> - Rebase to the latest linux-next.
> - Make CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES depends on !SLUB_TINY.
> - Rephrase parts of CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES's help paragraph.
> - Pass 0 as caller at places where the real caller is not needed.
> - Restore KMALLOC_NORMAL to 0, and move KMALLOC_RANDOM_* after it.
> - Change RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES_NR to 15, and adjust the kmalloc rnd
> name accordingly.
> - Replace RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES_BITS via ilog2(..._NR + 1).
>
> v4:
> - Set # of caches to 16 and remove config selection.
> - Shorten "kmalloc-random-" to "kmalloc-rnd-".
> - Update commit log and config's help paragraph.
> - Fine-tune PERCPU_DYNAMIC_SIZE_SHIFT to 12 instead of 13 (enough to
> pass compilation with allmodconfig and CONFIG_SLUB_TINY=n).
> - Some cleanup and typo fixing.
> - Link: https://lore.kernel.org/all/20230626031835.2279738-1-gongruiqi@huaweicloud.com/
>
> v3:
> - Replace SLAB_RANDOMSLAB with the new existing SLAB_NO_MERGE flag.
> - Shorten long code lines by wrapping and renaming.
> - Update commit message with latest perf benchmark and additional
> theorectical explanation.
> - Remove "RFC" from patch title and make it a formal patch
> - Link: https://lore.kernel.org/all/20230616111843.3677378-1-gongruiqi@huaweicloud.com/
>
> v2:
> - Use hash_64() and a per-boot random seed to select kmalloc() caches.
> - Change acceptable # of caches from [4,16] to {2,4,8,16}, which is
> more compatible with hashing.
> - Supplement results of performance and memory overhead tests.
> - Link: https://lore.kernel.org/all/20230508075507.1720950-1-gongruiqi1@huawei.com/
>
> v1:
> - Link: https://lore.kernel.org/all/20230315095459.186113-1-gongruiqi1@huawei.com/
>
> include/linux/percpu.h | 12 +++++++---
> include/linux/slab.h | 23 ++++++++++++++++---
> mm/Kconfig | 17 ++++++++++++++
> mm/kfence/kfence_test.c | 7 ++++--
> mm/slab.c | 2 +-
> mm/slab.h | 2 +-
> mm/slab_common.c | 49 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++-----
> 7 files changed, 97 insertions(+), 15 deletions(-)
>
> diff --git a/include/linux/percpu.h b/include/linux/percpu.h
> index b3b458442330..68fac2e7cbe6 100644
> --- a/include/linux/percpu.h
> +++ b/include/linux/percpu.h
> @@ -35,6 +35,12 @@
> #define PCPU_BITMAP_BLOCK_BITS (PCPU_BITMAP_BLOCK_SIZE >> \
> PCPU_MIN_ALLOC_SHIFT)
>
> +#ifdef CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> +#define PERCPU_DYNAMIC_SIZE_SHIFT 12
> +#else
> +#define PERCPU_DYNAMIC_SIZE_SHIFT 10
> +#endif
> +
> /*
> * Percpu allocator can serve percpu allocations before slab is
> * initialized which allows slab to depend on the percpu allocator.
> @@ -42,7 +48,7 @@
> * for this. Keep PERCPU_DYNAMIC_RESERVE equal to or larger than
> * PERCPU_DYNAMIC_EARLY_SIZE.
> */
> -#define PERCPU_DYNAMIC_EARLY_SIZE (20 << 10)
> +#define PERCPU_DYNAMIC_EARLY_SIZE (20 << PERCPU_DYNAMIC_SIZE_SHIFT)
>
> /*
> * PERCPU_DYNAMIC_RESERVE indicates the amount of free area to piggy
> @@ -56,9 +62,9 @@
> * intelligent way to determine this would be nice.
> */
> #if BITS_PER_LONG > 32
> -#define PERCPU_DYNAMIC_RESERVE (28 << 10)
> +#define PERCPU_DYNAMIC_RESERVE (28 << PERCPU_DYNAMIC_SIZE_SHIFT)
> #else
> -#define PERCPU_DYNAMIC_RESERVE (20 << 10)
> +#define PERCPU_DYNAMIC_RESERVE (20 << PERCPU_DYNAMIC_SIZE_SHIFT)
> #endif
>
> extern void *pcpu_base_addr;
> diff --git a/include/linux/slab.h b/include/linux/slab.h
> index 848c7c82ad5a..8228d1276a2f 100644
> --- a/include/linux/slab.h
> +++ b/include/linux/slab.h
> @@ -19,6 +19,7 @@
> #include <linux/workqueue.h>
> #include <linux/percpu-refcount.h>
> #include <linux/cleanup.h>
> +#include <linux/hash.h>
>
>
> /*
> @@ -345,6 +346,12 @@ static inline unsigned int arch_slab_minalign(void)
> #define SLAB_OBJ_MIN_SIZE (KMALLOC_MIN_SIZE < 16 ? \
> (KMALLOC_MIN_SIZE) : 16)
>
> +#ifdef CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> +#define RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES_NR 15 // # of cache copies
> +#else
> +#define RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES_NR 0
> +#endif
> +
> /*
> * Whenever changing this, take care of that kmalloc_type() and
> * create_kmalloc_caches() still work as intended.
> @@ -361,6 +368,8 @@ enum kmalloc_cache_type {
> #ifndef CONFIG_MEMCG_KMEM
> KMALLOC_CGROUP = KMALLOC_NORMAL,
> #endif
> + KMALLOC_RANDOM_START = KMALLOC_NORMAL,
> + KMALLOC_RANDOM_END = KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES_NR,
> #ifdef CONFIG_SLUB_TINY
> KMALLOC_RECLAIM = KMALLOC_NORMAL,
> #else
> @@ -386,14 +395,22 @@ kmalloc_caches[NR_KMALLOC_TYPES][KMALLOC_SHIFT_HIGH + 1];
> (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_ZONE_DMA) ? __GFP_DMA : 0) | \
> (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_MEMCG_KMEM) ? __GFP_ACCOUNT : 0))
>
> -static __always_inline enum kmalloc_cache_type kmalloc_type(gfp_t flags)
> +extern unsigned long random_kmalloc_seed;
> +
> +static __always_inline enum kmalloc_cache_type kmalloc_type(gfp_t flags, unsigned long caller)
> {
> /*
> * The most common case is KMALLOC_NORMAL, so test for it
> * with a single branch for all the relevant flags.
> */
> if (likely((flags & KMALLOC_NOT_NORMAL_BITS) == 0))
> +#ifdef CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> + /* RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES_NR (=15) copies + the KMALLOC_NORMAL */
> + return KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + hash_64(caller ^ random_kmalloc_seed,
> + ilog2(RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES_NR + 1));
> +#else
> return KMALLOC_NORMAL;
> +#endif
>
> /*
> * At least one of the flags has to be set. Their priorities in
> @@ -580,7 +597,7 @@ static __always_inline __alloc_size(1) void *kmalloc(size_t size, gfp_t flags)
>
> index = kmalloc_index(size);
> return kmalloc_trace(
> - kmalloc_caches[kmalloc_type(flags)][index],
> + kmalloc_caches[kmalloc_type(flags, _RET_IP_)][index],
> flags, size);
> }
> return __kmalloc(size, flags);
> @@ -596,7 +613,7 @@ static __always_inline __alloc_size(1) void *kmalloc_node(size_t size, gfp_t fla
>
> index = kmalloc_index(size);
> return kmalloc_node_trace(
> - kmalloc_caches[kmalloc_type(flags)][index],
> + kmalloc_caches[kmalloc_type(flags, _RET_IP_)][index],
> flags, node, size);
> }
> return __kmalloc_node(size, flags, node);
> diff --git a/mm/Kconfig b/mm/Kconfig
> index 22acffd9009d..989ab72bbecc 100644
> --- a/mm/Kconfig
> +++ b/mm/Kconfig
> @@ -337,6 +337,23 @@ config SLUB_CPU_PARTIAL
> which requires the taking of locks that may cause latency spikes.
> Typically one would choose no for a realtime system.
>
> +config RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> + default n
> + depends on SLUB && !SLUB_TINY
> + bool "Randomize slab caches for normal kmalloc"
> + help
> + A hardening feature that creates multiple copies of slab caches for
> + normal kmalloc allocation and makes kmalloc randomly pick one based
> + on code address, which makes the attackers more difficult to spray
> + vulnerable memory objects on the heap for the purpose of exploiting
> + memory vulnerabilities.
> +
> + Currently the number of copies is set to 16, a reasonably large value
> + that effectively diverges the memory objects allocated for different
> + subsystems or modules into different caches, at the expense of a
> + limited degree of memory and CPU overhead that relates to hardware and
> + system workload.
> +
> endmenu # SLAB allocator options
>
> config SHUFFLE_PAGE_ALLOCATOR
> diff --git a/mm/kfence/kfence_test.c b/mm/kfence/kfence_test.c
> index 9e008a336d9f..95b2b84c296d 100644
> --- a/mm/kfence/kfence_test.c
> +++ b/mm/kfence/kfence_test.c
> @@ -212,7 +212,9 @@ static void test_cache_destroy(void)
>
> static inline size_t kmalloc_cache_alignment(size_t size)
> {
> - return kmalloc_caches[kmalloc_type(GFP_KERNEL)][__kmalloc_index(size, false)]->align;
> + /* just to get ->align so no need to pass in the real caller */
> + enum kmalloc_cache_type type = kmalloc_type(GFP_KERNEL, 0);
> + return kmalloc_caches[type][__kmalloc_index(size, false)]->align;
> }
>
> /* Must always inline to match stack trace against caller. */
> @@ -282,8 +284,9 @@ static void *test_alloc(struct kunit *test, size_t size, gfp_t gfp, enum allocat
>
> if (is_kfence_address(alloc)) {
> struct slab *slab = virt_to_slab(alloc);
> + enum kmalloc_cache_type type = kmalloc_type(GFP_KERNEL, _RET_IP_);
> struct kmem_cache *s = test_cache ?:
> - kmalloc_caches[kmalloc_type(GFP_KERNEL)][__kmalloc_index(size, false)];
> + kmalloc_caches[type][__kmalloc_index(size, false)];
>
> /*
> * Verify that various helpers return the right values
> diff --git a/mm/slab.c b/mm/slab.c
> index 88194391d553..9ad3d0f2d1a5 100644
> --- a/mm/slab.c
> +++ b/mm/slab.c
> @@ -1670,7 +1670,7 @@ static size_t calculate_slab_order(struct kmem_cache *cachep,
> if (freelist_size > KMALLOC_MAX_CACHE_SIZE) {
> freelist_cache_size = PAGE_SIZE << get_order(freelist_size);
> } else {
> - freelist_cache = kmalloc_slab(freelist_size, 0u);
> + freelist_cache = kmalloc_slab(freelist_size, 0u, _RET_IP_);
> if (!freelist_cache)
> continue;
> freelist_cache_size = freelist_cache->size;
> diff --git a/mm/slab.h b/mm/slab.h
> index 9c0e09d0f81f..799a315695c6 100644
> --- a/mm/slab.h
> +++ b/mm/slab.h
> @@ -282,7 +282,7 @@ void setup_kmalloc_cache_index_table(void);
> void create_kmalloc_caches(slab_flags_t);
>
> /* Find the kmalloc slab corresponding for a certain size */
> -struct kmem_cache *kmalloc_slab(size_t, gfp_t);
> +struct kmem_cache *kmalloc_slab(size_t size, gfp_t flags, unsigned long caller);
>
> void *__kmem_cache_alloc_node(struct kmem_cache *s, gfp_t gfpflags,
> int node, size_t orig_size,
> diff --git a/mm/slab_common.c b/mm/slab_common.c
> index d1555ea2981a..01cdbf122463 100644
> --- a/mm/slab_common.c
> +++ b/mm/slab_common.c
> @@ -678,6 +678,11 @@ kmalloc_caches[NR_KMALLOC_TYPES][KMALLOC_SHIFT_HIGH + 1] __ro_after_init =
> { /* initialization for https://bugs.llvm.org/show_bug.cgi?id=42570 */ };
> EXPORT_SYMBOL(kmalloc_caches);
>
> +#ifdef CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> +unsigned long random_kmalloc_seed __ro_after_init;
> +EXPORT_SYMBOL(random_kmalloc_seed);
> +#endif
> +
> /*
> * Conversion table for small slabs sizes / 8 to the index in the
> * kmalloc array. This is necessary for slabs < 192 since we have non power
> @@ -720,7 +725,7 @@ static inline unsigned int size_index_elem(unsigned int bytes)
> * Find the kmem_cache structure that serves a given size of
> * allocation
> */
> -struct kmem_cache *kmalloc_slab(size_t size, gfp_t flags)
> +struct kmem_cache *kmalloc_slab(size_t size, gfp_t flags, unsigned long caller)
> {
> unsigned int index;
>
> @@ -735,7 +740,7 @@ struct kmem_cache *kmalloc_slab(size_t size, gfp_t flags)
> index = fls(size - 1);
> }
>
> - return kmalloc_caches[kmalloc_type(flags)][index];
> + return kmalloc_caches[kmalloc_type(flags, caller)][index];
> }
>
> size_t kmalloc_size_roundup(size_t size)
> @@ -752,8 +757,11 @@ size_t kmalloc_size_roundup(size_t size)
> if (size > KMALLOC_MAX_CACHE_SIZE)
> return PAGE_SIZE << get_order(size);
>
> - /* The flags don't matter since size_index is common to all. */
> - c = kmalloc_slab(size, GFP_KERNEL);
> + /*
> + * The flags don't matter since size_index is common to all.
> + * Neither does the caller for just getting ->object_size.
> + */
> + c = kmalloc_slab(size, GFP_KERNEL, 0);
> return c ? c->object_size : 0;
> }
> EXPORT_SYMBOL(kmalloc_size_roundup);
> @@ -776,12 +784,35 @@ EXPORT_SYMBOL(kmalloc_size_roundup);
> #define KMALLOC_RCL_NAME(sz)
> #endif
>
> +#ifdef CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> +#define __KMALLOC_RANDOM_CONCAT(a, b) a ## b
> +#define KMALLOC_RANDOM_NAME(N, sz) __KMALLOC_RANDOM_CONCAT(KMA_RAND_, N)(sz)
> +#define KMA_RAND_1(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 1] = "kmalloc-rnd-01-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_2(sz) KMA_RAND_1(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 2] = "kmalloc-rnd-02-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_3(sz) KMA_RAND_2(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 3] = "kmalloc-rnd-03-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_4(sz) KMA_RAND_3(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 4] = "kmalloc-rnd-04-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_5(sz) KMA_RAND_4(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 5] = "kmalloc-rnd-05-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_6(sz) KMA_RAND_5(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 6] = "kmalloc-rnd-06-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_7(sz) KMA_RAND_6(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 7] = "kmalloc-rnd-07-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_8(sz) KMA_RAND_7(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 8] = "kmalloc-rnd-08-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_9(sz) KMA_RAND_8(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 9] = "kmalloc-rnd-09-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_10(sz) KMA_RAND_9(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 10] = "kmalloc-rnd-10-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_11(sz) KMA_RAND_10(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 11] = "kmalloc-rnd-11-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_12(sz) KMA_RAND_11(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 12] = "kmalloc-rnd-12-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_13(sz) KMA_RAND_12(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 13] = "kmalloc-rnd-13-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_14(sz) KMA_RAND_13(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 14] = "kmalloc-rnd-14-" #sz,
> +#define KMA_RAND_15(sz) KMA_RAND_14(sz) .name[KMALLOC_RANDOM_START + 15] = "kmalloc-rnd-15-" #sz,
> +#else // CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> +#define KMALLOC_RANDOM_NAME(N, sz)
> +#endif
> +
> #define INIT_KMALLOC_INFO(__size, __short_size) \
> { \
> .name[KMALLOC_NORMAL] = "kmalloc-" #__short_size, \
> KMALLOC_RCL_NAME(__short_size) \
> KMALLOC_CGROUP_NAME(__short_size) \
> KMALLOC_DMA_NAME(__short_size) \
> + KMALLOC_RANDOM_NAME(RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES_NR, __short_size) \
> .size = __size, \
> }
>
> @@ -890,6 +921,11 @@ new_kmalloc_cache(int idx, enum kmalloc_cache_type type, slab_flags_t flags)
> flags |= SLAB_CACHE_DMA;
> }
>
> +#ifdef CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> + if (type >= KMALLOC_RANDOM_START && type <= KMALLOC_RANDOM_END)
> + flags |= SLAB_NO_MERGE;
> +#endif
> +
> /*
> * If CONFIG_MEMCG_KMEM is enabled, disable cache merging for
> * KMALLOC_NORMAL caches.
> @@ -941,6 +977,9 @@ void __init create_kmalloc_caches(slab_flags_t flags)
> new_kmalloc_cache(2, type, flags);
> }
> }
> +#ifdef CONFIG_RANDOM_KMALLOC_CACHES
> + random_kmalloc_seed = get_random_u64();
> +#endif
>
> /* Kmalloc array is now usable */
> slab_state = UP;
> @@ -976,7 +1015,7 @@ void *__do_kmalloc_node(size_t size, gfp_t flags, int node, unsigned long caller
> return ret;
> }
>
> - s = kmalloc_slab(size, flags);
> + s = kmalloc_slab(size, flags, caller);
>
> if (unlikely(ZERO_OR_NULL_PTR(s)))
> return s;
> --
> 2.25.1
Looks good to me,
Reviewed-by: Hyeonggon Yoo <42.hyeyoo@...il.com>
Thanks,
Hyeonggon
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