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Message-Id: <1456290047-16654-9-git-send-email-paulmck@linux.vnet.ibm.com>
Date: Tue, 23 Feb 2016 21:00:42 -0800
From: "Paul E. McKenney" <paulmck@...ux.vnet.ibm.com>
To: linux-kernel@...r.kernel.org
Cc: mingo@...nel.org, jiangshanlai@...il.com, dipankar@...ibm.com,
akpm@...ux-foundation.org, mathieu.desnoyers@...icios.com,
josh@...htriplett.org, tglx@...utronix.de, peterz@...radead.org,
rostedt@...dmis.org, dhowells@...hat.com, edumazet@...gle.com,
dvhart@...ux.intel.com, fweisbec@...il.com, oleg@...hat.com,
bobby.prani@...il.com,
"Paul E. McKenney" <paulmck@...ux.vnet.ibm.com>
Subject: [PATCH tip/core/rcu 09/14] documentation: Add documentation for RCU's major data structures
This commit adds documentation for RCU's major data structures,
including rcu_state, rcu_node, rcu_data, rcu_dynticks, and rcu_head.
Signed-off-by: Paul E. McKenney <paulmck@...ux.vnet.ibm.com>
---
.../Design/Data-Structures/BigTreeClassicRCU.svg | 474 +++++++
.../Design/Data-Structures/BigTreeClassicRCUBH.svg | 499 +++++++
.../Data-Structures/BigTreeClassicRCUBHdyntick.svg | 695 ++++++++++
.../Data-Structures/BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntick.svg | 741 +++++++++++
.../BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntickCB.svg | 858 ++++++++++++
.../Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.html | 1372 ++++++++++++++++++++
.../Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.htmlx | 1272 ++++++++++++++++++
.../Design/Data-Structures/HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg | 939 ++++++++++++++
.../RCU/Design/Data-Structures/TreeLevel.svg | 828 ++++++++++++
.../RCU/Design/Data-Structures/TreeMapping.svg | 305 +++++
.../Design/Data-Structures/TreeMappingLevel.svg | 380 ++++++
.../RCU/Design/Data-Structures/blkd_task.svg | 843 ++++++++++++
.../RCU/Design/Data-Structures/nxtlist.svg | 396 ++++++
13 files changed, 9602 insertions(+)
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create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/BigTreeClassicRCUBHdyntick.svg
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntick.svg
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntickCB.svg
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.html
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.htmlx
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/TreeLevel.svg
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/TreeMapping.svg
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/TreeMappingLevel.svg
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/blkd_task.svg
create mode 100644 Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/nxtlist.svg
diff --git a/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/BigTreeClassicRCU.svg b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/BigTreeClassicRCU.svg
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.html b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.html
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+<!-- DO NOT HAND EDIT. -->
+<!-- Instead, edit Data-Structures.htmlx and run 'sh htmlqqz.sh Data-Structures' -->
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"
+ "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
+ <html>
+ <head><title>A Tour Through TREE_RCU's Data Structures [LWN.net]</title>
+ <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
+
+ <p>January 27, 2016</p>
+ <p>This article was contributed by Paul E. McKenney</p>
+
+<h3>Introduction</h3>
+
+This document describes RCU's major data structures and their relationship
+to each other.
+
+<ol>
+<li> <a href="#Data-Structure Relationships">
+ Data-Structure Relationships</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_state Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_state</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_node Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_node</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_data Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_data</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_dynticks Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_head Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_head</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#RCU-Specific Fields in the task_struct Structure">
+ RCU-Specific Fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#Accessor Functions">
+ Accessor Functions</a>
+</ol>
+
+At the end we have the
+<a href="#Answers to Quick Quizzes">answers to the quick quizzes</a>.
+
+<h3><a name="Data-Structure Relationships">Data-Structure Relationships</a></h3>
+
+<p>RCU is for all intents and purposes a large state machine, and its
+data structures maintain the state in such a way as to allow RCU readers
+to execute extremely quickly, while also processing the RCU grace periods
+requested by updaters in an efficient and extremely scalable fashion.
+The efficiency and scalability of RCU updaters is provided primarily
+by a combining tree, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCU.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCU.svg" width="30%">
+
+</p><p>This diagram shows an enclosing <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure
+containing a tree of <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures.
+Each leaf node of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree has up to 16
+<tt>rcu_data</tt> structures associated with it, so that there
+are <tt>NR_CPUS</tt> number of <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures,
+one for each possible CPU.
+This structure is adjusted at boot time, if needed, to handle the
+common case where <tt>nr_cpu_ids</tt> is much less than
+<tt>NR_CPUs</tt>.
+For example, a number of Linux distributions set <tt>NR_CPUs=4096</tt>,
+which results in a three-level <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree.
+If the actual hardware has only 16 CPUs, RCU will adjust itself
+at boot time, resulting in an <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree with only a single node.
+
+</p><p>The purpose of this combining tree is to allow per-CPU events
+such as quiescent states, dyntick-idle transitions,
+and CPU hotplug operations to be processed efficiently
+and scalably.
+Quiescent states are recorded by the per-CPU <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures,
+and other events are recorded by the leaf-level <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structures.
+All of these events are combined at each level of the tree until finally
+grace periods are completed at the tree's root <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure.
+A grace period can be completed at the root once every CPU
+(or, in the case of <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt>, task)
+has passed through a quiescent state.
+Once a grace period has completed, record of that fact is propagated
+back down the tree.
+
+</p><p>As can be seen from the diagram, on a 64-bit system
+a two-level tree with 64 leaves can accommodate 1,024 CPUs, with a fanout
+of 64 at the root and a fanout of 16 at the leaves.
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 1"><b>Quick Quiz 1</b>:</a>
+Why isn't the fanout at the leaves also 64?
+<br><a href="#qq1answer">Answer</a>
+
+</p><p>If your system has more than 1,024 CPUs (or more than 512 CPUs on
+a 32-bit system), then RCU will automatically add more levels to the
+tree.
+For example, if you are crazy enough to build a 64-bit system with 65,536
+CPUs, RCU would configure the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree as follows:
+
+</p><p><img src="HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg" alt="HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg" width="50%">
+
+</p><p>RCU currently permits up to a four-level tree, which on a 64-bit system
+accommodates up to 4,194,304 CPUs, though only a mere 524,288 CPUs for
+32-bit systems.
+On the other hand, you can set <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> to be
+as small as 2 if you wish, which would permit only 16 CPUs, which
+is useful for testing.
+
+</p><p>The Linux kernel actually supports multiple flavors of RCU
+running concurrently, so RCU builds separate data structures for each
+flavor.
+For example, for <tt>CONFIG_TREE_RCU=y</tt> kernels, RCU provides
+rcu_sched and rcu_bh, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCUBH.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCUBH.svg" width="33%">
+
+</p><p>Energy efficiency is increasingly important, and for that
+reason the Linux kernel provides <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt>, which
+turns off the scheduling-clock interrupts on idle CPUs, which in
+turn allows those CPUs to attain deeper sleep states and to consume
+less energy.
+CPUs whose scheduling-clock interrupts have been turned off are
+said to be in <i>dyntick-idle mode</i>.
+RCU must handle dyntick-idle CPUs specially
+because RCU would otherwise wake up each CPU on every grace period,
+which would defeat the whole purpose of <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt>.
+RCU uses the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure to track
+which CPUs are in dyntick idle mode, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCUBHdyntick.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCUBHdyntick.svg" width="33%">
+
+</p><p>However, if a CPU is in dyntick-idle mode, it is in that mode
+for all flavors of RCU.
+Therefore, a single <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure is allocated per
+CPU, and all of a given CPU's <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures share
+that <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>, as shown in the figure.
+
+</p><p>Kernels built with <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> support
+rcu_preempt in addition to rcu_sched and rcu_bh, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntick.svg" alt="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntick.svg" width="35%">
+
+</p><p>RCU updaters wait for normal grace periods by registering
+RCU callbacks, either directly via <tt>call_rcu()</tt> and
+friends (namely <tt>call_rcu_bh()</tt> and <tt>call_rcu_sched()</tt>),
+there being a separate interface per flavor of RCU)
+or indirectly via <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> and friends.
+RCU callbacks are represented by <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures,
+which are queued on <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures while they are
+waiting for a grace period to elapse, as shown in the following figure:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntickCB.svg" alt="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntickCB.svg" width="40%">
+
+</p><p>This figure shows how <tt>TREE_RCU</tt>'s and
+<tt>TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt>'s major data structures are related.
+Lesser data structures will be introduced with the algorithms that
+make use of them.
+
+</p><p>Note that each of the data structures in the above figure has
+its own synchronization:
+
+<p><ol>
+<li> Each <tt>rcu_state</tt> structures has a lock and a mutex,
+ and some fields are protected by the corresponding root
+ <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's lock.
+<li> Each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure has a spinlock.
+<li> The fields in <tt>rcu_data</tt> are private to the corresponding
+ CPU, although a few can be read and written by other CPUs.
+<li> Similarly, the fields in <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> are private
+ to the corresponding CPU, although a few can be read by
+ other CPUs.
+</ol>
+
+<p>It is important to note that different data structures can have
+very different ideas about the state of RCU at any given time.
+For but one example, awareness of the start or end of a given RCU
+grace period propagates slowly through the data structures.
+This slow propagation is absolutely necessary for RCU to have good
+read-side performance.
+If this balkanized implementation seems foreign to you, one useful
+trick is to consider each instance of these data structures to be
+a different person, each having the usual slightly different
+view of reality.
+
+</p><p>The general role of each of these data structures is as
+follows:
+
+</p><ol>
+<li> <tt>rcu_state</tt>:
+ This structure forms the interconnection between the
+ <tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures,
+ tracks grace periods, serves as short-term repository
+ for callbacks orphaned by CPU-hotplug events,
+ maintains <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> state,
+ tracks expedited grace-period state,
+ and maintains state used to force quiescent states when
+ grace periods extend too long,
+<li> <tt>rcu_node</tt>: This structure forms the combining
+ tree that propagates quiescent-state
+ information from the leaves to the root, and also propagates
+ grace-period information from the root to the leaves.
+ It provides local copies of the grace-period state in order
+ to allow this information to be accessed in a synchronized
+ manner without suffering the scalability limitations that
+ would otherwise be imposed by global locking.
+ In <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> kernels, it manages the lists
+ of tasks that have blocked while in their current
+ RCU read-side critical section.
+ In <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> with
+ <tt>CONFIG_RCU_BOOST</tt>, it manages the
+ per-<tt>rcu_node</tt> priority-boosting
+ kernel threads (kthreads) and state.
+ Finally, it records CPU-hotplug state in order to determine
+ which CPUs should be ignored during a given grace period.
+<li> <tt>rcu_data</tt>: This per-CPU structure is the
+ focus of quiescent-state detection and RCU callback queuing.
+ It also tracks its relationship to the corresponding leaf
+ <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure to allow more-efficient
+ propagation of quiescent states up the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+ combining tree.
+ Like the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, it provides a local
+ copy of the grace-period information to allow for-free
+ synchronized
+ access to this information from the corresponding CPU.
+ Finally, this structure records past dyntick-idle state
+ for the corresponding CPU and also tracks statistics.
+<li> <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>:
+ This per-CPU structure tracks the current dyntick-idle
+ state for the corresponding CPU.
+ Unlike the other three structures, the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>
+ structure is not replicated per RCU flavor.
+<li> <tt>rcu_head</tt>:
+ This structure represents RCU callbacks, and is the
+ only structure allocated and managed by RCU users.
+ The <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure is normally embedded
+ within the RCU-protected data structure.
+</ol>
+
+<p>If all you wanted from this article was a general notion of how
+RCU's data structures are related, you are done.
+Otherwise, each of the following sections give more details on
+the <tt>rcu_state</tt>, <tt>rcu_node</tt>, <tt>rcu_data</tt>,
+and <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> data structures.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_state Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_state</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is the base structure that
+represents a flavor of RCU.
+This structure forms the interconnection between the
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures,
+tracks grace periods, contains the lock used to
+synchronize with CPU-hotplug events,
+and maintains state used to force quiescent states when
+grace periods extend too long,
+
+</p><p>A few of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's fields are discussed,
+singly and in groups, in the following sections.
+The more specialized fields are covered in the discussion of their
+use.
+
+<h5>Relationship to rcu_node and rcu_data Structures</h5>
+
+This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct rcu_node node[NUM_RCU_NODES];
+ 2 struct rcu_node *level[NUM_RCU_LVLS + 1];
+ 3 struct rcu_data __percpu *rda;
+</pre>
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 2"><b>Quick Quiz 2</b>:</a>
+Wait a minute!
+You said that the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures formed a tree,
+but they are declared as a flat array!
+What gives?
+<br><a href="#qq2answer">Answer</a>
+
+</p><p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree is embedded into the
+<tt>->node[]</tt> array as shown in the following figure:
+
+</p><p><img src="TreeMapping.svg" alt="TreeMapping.svg" width="40%">
+
+</p><p>One interesting consequence of this mapping is that a
+breadth-first traversal of the tree is implemented as a simple
+linear scan of the array, which is in fact what the
+<tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first()</tt> macro does.
+This macro is used at the beginning and ends of grace periods.
+
+</p><p>Each entry of the <tt>->level</tt> array references
+the first <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure on the corresponding level
+of the tree, for example, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="TreeMappingLevel.svg" alt="TreeMappingLevel.svg" width="40%">
+
+</p><p>The zero<sup>th</sup> element of the array references the root
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, the first element references the
+first child of the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>, and finally the second
+element references the first leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure.
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 3"><b>Quick Quiz 3</b>:</a>
+Given that this array represents a tree, why can't the diagram that
+includes the <tt>->level</tt> array be planar?
+<br><a href="#qq3answer">Answer</a>
+
+</p><p>Finally, the <tt>->rda</tt> field references a per-CPU
+pointer to the corresponding CPU's <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure.
+
+</p><p>All of these fields are constant once initialization is complete,
+and therefore need no protection.
+
+<h5>Grace-Period Tracking</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long gpnum;
+ 2 unsigned long completed;
+</pre>
+
+<p>RCU grace periods are numbered, and
+the <tt>->gpnum</tt> field contains the number of the grace
+period that started most recently.
+The <tt>->completed</tt> field contains the number of the
+grace period that completed most recently.
+If the two fields are equal, the RCU grace period that most recently
+started has already completed, and therefore the corresponding
+flavor of RCU is idle.
+If <tt>->gpnum</tt> is one greater than <tt>->completed</tt>,
+then <tt>->gpnum</tt> gives the number of the current RCU
+grace period, which has not yet completed.
+Any other combination of values indicates that something is broken.
+These two fields are protected by the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>'s
+<tt>->lock</tt> field.
+
+</p><p>There are <tt>->gpnum</tt> and <tt>->completed</tt> fields
+in the <tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures
+as well.
+The fields in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure represent the
+most current values, and those of the other structures are compared
+in order to detect the start of a new grace period in a distributed
+fashion.
+The values flow from <tt>rcu_state</tt> to <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+(down the tree from the root to the leaves) to <tt>rcu_data</tt>.
+
+<h5>Miscellaneous</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long gp_max;
+ 2 char abbr;
+ 3 char *name;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->gp_max</tt> field tracks the duration of the longest
+grace period in jiffies.
+It is protected by the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>'s <tt>->lock</tt>.
+
+<p>The <tt>->name</tt> field points to the name of the RCU flavor
+(for example, “rcu_sched”), and is constant.
+The <tt>->abbr</tt> field contains a one-character abbreviation,
+for example, “s” for RCU-sched.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_node Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_node</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures form the combining
+tree that propagates quiescent-state
+information from the leaves to the root and also that propagates
+grace-period information from the root down to the leaves.
+They provides local copies of the grace-period state in order
+to allow this information to be accessed in a synchronized
+manner without suffering the scalability limitations that
+would otherwise be imposed by global locking.
+In <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> kernels, they manage the lists
+of tasks that have blocked while in their current
+RCU read-side critical section.
+In <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> with
+<tt>CONFIG_RCU_BOOST</tt>, they manage the
+per-<tt>rcu_node</tt> priority-boosting
+kernel threads (kthreads) and state.
+Finally, they record CPU-hotplug state in order to determine
+which CPUs should be ignored during a given grace period.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's fields are discussed,
+singly and in groups, in the following sections.
+
+<h5>Connection to Combining Tree</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct rcu_node *parent;
+ 2 u8 level;
+ 3 u8 grpnum;
+ 4 unsigned long grpmask;
+ 5 int grplo;
+ 6 int grphi;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->parent</tt> pointer references the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+one level up in the tree, and is <tt>NULL</tt> for the root
+<tt>rcu_node</tt>.
+The RCU implementation makes heavy use of this field to push quiescent
+states up the tree.
+The <tt>->level</tt> field gives the level in the tree, with
+the root being at level zero, its children at level one, and so on.
+The <tt>->grpnum</tt> field gives this node's position within
+the children of its parent, so this number can range between 0 and 31
+on 32-bit systems and between 0 and 63 on 64-bit systems.
+The <tt>->level</tt> and <tt>->grpnum</tt> fields are
+used only during initialization and for tracing.
+The <tt>->grpmask</tt> field is the bitmask counterpart of
+<tt>->grpnum</tt>, and therefore always has exactly one bit set.
+This mask is used to clear the bit corresponding to this <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure in its parent's bitmasks, which are described later.
+Finally, the <tt>->grplo</tt> and <tt>->grphi</tt> fields
+contain the lowest and highest numbered CPU served by this
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, respectively.
+
+</p><p>All of these fields are constant, and thus do not require any
+synchronization.
+
+<h5>Synchronization</h5>
+
+<p>This field of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 raw_spinlock_t lock;
+</pre>
+
+<p>This field is used to protect the remaining fields in this structure,
+unless otherwise stated.
+That said, all of the fields in this structure can be accessed without
+locking for tracing purposes.
+Yes, this can result in confusing traces, but better some tracing confusion
+than to be heisenbugged out of existence.
+
+<h5>Grace-Period Tracking</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long gpnum;
+ 2 unsigned long completed;
+</pre>
+
+<p>These fields are the counterparts of the fields of the same name in
+the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure.
+They each may lag up to one behind their <tt>rcu_state</tt>
+counterparts.
+If a given <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->gpnum</tt> and
+<tt>->complete</tt> fields are equal, then this <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure believes that RCU is idle.
+Otherwise, as with the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure,
+the <tt>->gpnum</tt> field will be one greater than the
+<tt>->complete</tt> fields, with <tt>->gpnum</tt>
+indicating which grace period this <tt>rcu_node</tt> believes
+is still being waited for.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>>gpnum</tt> field of each <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure is updated at the beginning
+of each grace period, and the <tt>->completed</tt> fields are
+updated at the end of each grace period.
+
+<h5>Quiescent-State Tracking</h5>
+
+<p>These fields manage the propagation of quiescent states up the
+combining tree.
+
+</p><p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure has fields
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long qsmask;
+ 2 unsigned long expmask;
+ 3 unsigned long qsmaskinit;
+ 4 unsigned long expmaskinit;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->qsmask</tt> field tracks which of this
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children still need to report
+quiescent states for the current normal grace period.
+Such children will have a value of 1 in their corresponding bit.
+Note that the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures should be
+thought of as having <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures as their
+children.
+Similarly, the <tt>->expmask</tt> field tracks which
+of this <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children still need to report
+quiescent states for the current expedited grace period.
+An expedited grace period has
+the same conceptual properties as a normal grace period, but the
+expedited implementation accepts extreme CPU overhead to obtain
+much lower grace-period latency, for example, consuming a few
+tens of microseconds worth of CPU time to reduce grace-period
+duration from milliseconds to tens of microseconds.
+The <tt>->qsmaskinit</tt> field tracks which of this
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children cover for at least
+one online CPU.
+This mask is used to initialize <tt>->qsmask</tt>,
+and <tt>->expmaskinit</tt> is used to initialize
+<tt>->expmask</tt> and the beginning of the
+normal and expedited grace periods, respectively.
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 4"><b>Quick Quiz 4</b>:</a>
+Why are these bitmasks protected by locking?
+Come on, haven't you heard of atomic instructions???
+<br><a href="#qq4answer">Answer</a>
+
+<h5>Blocked-Task Management</h5>
+
+<p><tt>TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> allows tasks to be preempted in the
+midst of their RCU read-side critical sections, and these tasks
+must be tracked explicitly.
+The details of exactly why and how they are tracked will be covered
+in a separate article on RCU read-side processing.
+For now, it is enough to know that the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure tracks them.
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct list_head blkd_tasks;
+ 2 struct list_head *gp_tasks;
+ 3 struct list_head *exp_tasks;
+ 4 bool wait_blkd_tasks;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> field is a list header for
+the list of blocked and preempted tasks.
+As tasks undergo context switches within RCU read-side critical
+sections, their <tt>task_struct</tt> structures are enqueued
+(via the <tt>task_struct</tt>'s <tt>->rcu_node_entry</tt>
+field) onto the head of the <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> list for the
+leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure corresponding to the CPU
+on which the outgoing context switch executed.
+As these tasks later exit their RCU read-side critical sections,
+they remove themselves from the list.
+This list is therefore in reverse time order, so that if one of the tasks
+is blocking the current grace period, all subsequent tasks must
+also be blocking that same grace period.
+Therefore, a single pointer into this list suffices to track
+all tasks blocking a given grace period.
+That pointer is stored in <tt>->gp_tasks</tt> for normal
+grace periods and in <tt>->exp_tasks</tt> for expedited
+grace periods.
+These last two fields are <tt>NULL</tt> if either there is
+no grace period in flight or if there are no blocked tasks
+preventing that grace period from completing.
+If either of these two pointers is referencing a task that
+removes itself from the <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> list,
+then that task must advance the pointer to the next task on
+the list, or set the pointer to <tt>NULL</tt> if there
+are no subsequent tasks on the list.
+
+</p><p>For example, suppose that tasks T1, T2, and T3 are
+all hard-affinitied to the largest-numbered CPU in the system.
+Then if task T1 blocked in an RCU read-side
+critical section, then an expedited grace period started,
+then task T2 blocked in an RCU read-side critical section,
+then a normal grace period started, and finally task 3 blocked
+in an RCU read-side critical section, then the state of the
+last leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's blocked-task list
+would be as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="blkd_task.svg" alt="blkd_task.svg" width="60%">
+
+</p><p>Task T1 is blocking both grace periods, task T2 is
+blocking only the normal grace period, and task T3 is blocking
+neither grace period.
+Note that these tasks will not remove themselves from this list
+immediately upon resuming execution.
+They will instead remain on the list until they execute the outermost
+<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> that ends their RCU read-side critical
+section.
+
+<p>
+The <tt>->wait_blkd_tasks</tt> field indicates whether or not
+the current grace period is waiting on a blocked task.
+
+<h5>Sizing the <tt>rcu_node</tt> Array</h5>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> array is sized via a series of
+C-preprocessor expressions as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 #ifdef CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT
+ 2 #define RCU_FANOUT CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT
+ 3 #else
+ 4 # ifdef CONFIG_64BIT
+ 5 # define RCU_FANOUT 64
+ 6 # else
+ 7 # define RCU_FANOUT 32
+ 8 # endif
+ 9 #endif
+10
+11 #ifdef CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF
+12 #define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF
+13 #else
+14 # ifdef CONFIG_64BIT
+15 # define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF 64
+16 # else
+17 # define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF 32
+18 # endif
+19 #endif
+20
+21 #define RCU_FANOUT_1 (RCU_FANOUT_LEAF)
+22 #define RCU_FANOUT_2 (RCU_FANOUT_1 * RCU_FANOUT)
+23 #define RCU_FANOUT_3 (RCU_FANOUT_2 * RCU_FANOUT)
+24 #define RCU_FANOUT_4 (RCU_FANOUT_3 * RCU_FANOUT)
+25
+26 #if NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_1
+27 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 1
+28 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1
+29 # define NUM_RCU_NODES NUM_RCU_LVL_0
+30 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0 }
+31 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0" }
+32 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0" }
+33 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0" }
+34 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_2
+35 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 2
+36 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1
+37 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1)
+38 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1)
+39 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1 }
+40 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1" }
+41 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1" }
+42 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1" }
+43 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_3
+44 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 3
+45 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1
+46 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_2)
+47 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_2 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1)
+48 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1 + NUM_RCU_LVL_2)
+49 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1, NUM_RCU_LVL_2 }
+50 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1", "rcu_node_2" }
+51 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1", "rcu_node_fqs_2" }
+52 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1", "rcu_node_exp_2" }
+53 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_4
+54 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 4
+55 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1
+56 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_3)
+57 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_2 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_2)
+58 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_3 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1)
+59 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1 + NUM_RCU_LVL_2 + NUM_RCU_LVL_3)
+60 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1, NUM_RCU_LVL_2, NUM_RCU_LVL_3 }
+61 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1", "rcu_node_2", "rcu_node_3" }
+62 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1", "rcu_node_fqs_2", "rcu_node_fqs_3" }
+63 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1", "rcu_node_exp_2", "rcu_node_exp_3" }
+64 #else
+65 # error "CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT insufficient for NR_CPUS"
+66 #endif
+</pre>
+
+<p>The maximum number of levels in the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure
+is currently limited to four, as specified by lines 21-24
+and the structure of the subsequent “if” statement.
+For 32-bit systems, this allows 16*32*32*32=524,288 CPUs, which
+should be sufficient for the next few years at least.
+For 64-bit systems, 16*64*64*64=4,194,304 CPUs is allowed, which
+should see us through the next decade or so.
+This four-level tree also allows kernels built with
+<tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT=8</tt> to support up to 4096 CPUs,
+which might be useful in very large systems having eight CPUs per
+socket (but please note that no one has yet shown any measurable
+performance degradation due to misaligned socket and <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+boundaries).
+In addition, building kernels with a full four levels of <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+tree permits better testing of RCU's combining-tree code.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>RCU_FANOUT</tt> symbol controls how many children
+are permitted at each non-leaf level of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree.
+If the <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> Kconfig option is not specified,
+it is set based on the word size of the system, which is also
+the Kconfig default.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt> symbol controls how many CPUs are
+handled by each leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure.
+Experience has shown that allowing a given leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure to handle 64 CPUs, as permitted by the number of bits in
+the <tt>->qsmask</tt> field on a 64-bit system, results in
+excessive contention for the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures'
+<tt>->lock</tt> fields.
+The number of CPUs per leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is therefore
+limited to 16 given the default value of <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt>.
+If <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt> is unspecified, the value
+selected is based on the word size of the system, just as for
+<tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt>.
+Lines 11-19 perform this computation.
+
+</p><p>Lines 21-24 compute the maximum number of CPUs supported by
+a single-level (which contains a single <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure),
+two-level, three-level, and four-level <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree,
+respectively, given the fanout specified by <tt>RCU_FANOUT</tt>
+and <tt>RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt>.
+These numbers of CPUs are retained in the
+<tt>RCU_FANOUT_1</tt>,
+<tt>RCU_FANOUT_2</tt>,
+<tt>RCU_FANOUT_3</tt>, and
+<tt>RCU_FANOUT_4</tt>
+C-preprocessor variables, respectively.
+
+</p><p>These variables are used to control the C-preprocessor <tt>#if</tt>
+statement spanning lines 26-66 that computes the number of
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures required for each level of the tree,
+as well as the number of levels required.
+The number of levels is placed in the <tt>NUM_RCU_LVLS</tt>
+C-preprocessor variable by lines 27, 35, 44, and 54.
+The number of <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures for the topmost level
+of the tree is always exactly one, and this value is unconditionally
+placed into <tt>NUM_RCU_LVL_0</tt> by lines 28, 36, 45, and 55.
+The rest of the levels (if any) of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree
+are computed by dividing the maximum number of CPUs by the
+fanout supported by the number of levels from the current level down,
+rounding up. This computation is performed by lines 37,
+46-47, and 56-58.
+Lines 31-33, 40-42, 50-52, and 62-63 create initializers
+for lockdep lock-class names.
+Finally, lines 64-66 produce an error if the maximum number of
+CPUs is too large for the specified fanout.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_data Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_data</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_data</tt> maintains the per-CPU state for the
+corresponding flavor of RCU.
+The fields in this structure may be accessed only from the corresponding
+CPU (and from tracing) unless otherwise stated.
+This structure is the
+focus of quiescent-state detection and RCU callback queuing.
+It also tracks its relationship to the corresponding leaf
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure to allow more-efficient
+propagation of quiescent states up the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+combining tree.
+Like the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, it provides a local
+copy of the grace-period information to allow for-free
+synchronized
+access to this information from the corresponding CPU.
+Finally, this structure records past dyntick-idle state
+for the corresponding CPU and also tracks statistics.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's fields are discussed,
+singly and in groups, in the following sections.
+
+<h5>Connection to Other Data Structures</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 int cpu;
+ 2 struct rcu_state *rsp;
+ 3 struct rcu_node *mynode;
+ 4 struct rcu_dynticks *dynticks;
+ 5 unsigned long grpmask;
+ 6 bool beenonline;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->cpu</tt> field contains the number of the
+corresponding CPU, the <tt>->rsp</tt> pointer references
+the corresponding <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure (and is most frequently
+used to locate the name of the corresponding flavor of RCU for tracing),
+and the <tt>->mynode</tt> field references the corresponding
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure.
+The <tt>->mynode</tt> is used to propagate quiescent states
+up the combining tree.
+<p>The <tt>->dynticks</tt> pointer references the
+<tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure corresponding to this
+CPU.
+Recall that a single per-CPU instance of the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>
+structure is shared among all flavors of RCU.
+These first four fields are constant and therefore require not
+synchronization.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->grpmask</tt> field indicates the bit in
+the <tt>->mynode->qsmask</tt> corresponding to this
+<tt>rcu_data</tt> structure, and is also used when propagating
+quiescent states.
+The <tt>->beenonline</tt> flag is set whenever the corresponding
+CPU comes online, which means that the debugfs tracing need not dump
+out any <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure for which this flag is not set.
+
+<h5>Quiescent-State and Grace-Period Tracking</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long completed;
+ 2 unsigned long gpnum;
+ 3 bool cpu_no_qs;
+ 4 bool core_needs_qs;
+ 5 bool gpwrap;
+ 6 unsigned long rcu_qs_ctr_snap;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>completed</tt> and <tt>gpnum</tt>
+fields are the counterparts of the fields of the same name
+in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> and <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures.
+They may each lag up to one behind their <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+counterparts, but in <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt> and
+<tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_FULL</tt> kernels can lag
+arbitrarily far behind for CPUs in dyntick-idle mode (but these counters
+will catch up upon exit from dyntick-idle mode).
+If a given <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's <tt>->gpnum</tt> and
+<tt>->complete</tt> fields are equal, then this <tt>rcu_data</tt>
+structure believes that RCU is idle.
+Otherwise, as with the <tt>rcu_state</tt> and <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure,
+the <tt>->gpnum</tt> field will be one greater than the
+<tt>->complete</tt> fields, with <tt>->gpnum</tt>
+indicating which grace period this <tt>rcu_data</tt> believes
+is still being waited for.
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 5"><b>Quick Quiz 5</b>:</a>
+All this replication of the grace period numbers can only cause
+massive confusion.
+Why not just keep a global pair of counters and be done with it???
+<br><a href="#qq5answer">Answer</a>
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->cpu_no_qs</tt> flag indicates that the
+CPU has not yet passed through a quiescent state,
+while the <tt>->core_needs_qs</tt> flag indicates that the
+RCU core needs a quiescent state from the corresponding CPU.
+The <tt>->gpwrap</tt> field indicates that the corresponding
+CPU has remained idle for so long that the <tt>completed</tt>
+and <tt>gpnum</tt> counters are in danger of overflow, which
+will cause the CPU to disregard the values of its counters on
+its next exit from idle.
+Finally, the <tt>rcu_qs_ctr_snap</tt> field is used to detect
+cases where a given operation has resulted in a quiescent state
+for all flavors of RCU, for example, <tt>cond_resched_rcu_qs()</tt>.
+
+<h5>RCU Callback Handling</h5>
+
+<p>In the absence of CPU-hotplug events, RCU callbacks are invoked by
+the same CPU that registered them.
+This is strictly a cache-locality optimization: callbacks can and
+do get invoked on CPUs other than the one that registered them.
+After all, if the CPU that registered a given callback has gone
+offline before the callback can be invoked, there really is no other
+choice.
+
+</p><p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct rcu_head *nxtlist;
+ 2 struct rcu_head **nxttail[RCU_NEXT_SIZE];
+ 3 unsigned long nxtcompleted[RCU_NEXT_SIZE];
+ 4 long qlen_lazy;
+ 5 long qlen;
+ 6 long qlen_last_fqs_check;
+ 7 unsigned long n_force_qs_snap;
+ 8 unsigned long n_cbs_invoked;
+ 9 unsigned long n_cbs_orphaned;
+10 unsigned long n_cbs_adopted;
+11 long blimit;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->nxtlist</tt> pointer and the
+<tt>->nxttail[]</tt> array form a four-segment list with
+older callbacks near the head and newer ones near the tail.
+Each segment contains callbacks with the corresponding relationship
+to the current grace period.
+The pointer out of the end of each of the four segments is referenced
+by the element of the <tt>->nxttail[]</tt> array indexed by
+<tt>RCU_DONE_TAIL</tt> (for callbacks handled by a prior grace period),
+<tt>RCU_WAIT_TAIL</tt> (for callbacks waiting on the current grace period),
+<tt>RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL</tt> (for callbacks that will wait on the next
+grace period), and
+<tt>RCU_NEXT_TAIL</tt> (for callbacks that are not yet associated
+with a specific grace period)
+respectively, as shown in the following figure.
+
+</p><p><img src="nxtlist.svg" alt="nxtlist.svg" width="40%">
+
+</p><p>In this figure, the <tt>->nxtlist</tt> pointer references the
+first
+RCU callback in the list.
+The <tt>->nxttail[RCU_DONE_TAIL]</tt> array element references
+the <tt>->nxtlist</tt> pointer itself, indicating that none
+of the callbacks is ready to invoke.
+The <tt>->nxttail[RCU_WAIT_TAIL]</tt> array element references callback
+CB 2's <tt>->next</tt> pointer, which indicates that
+CB 1 and CB 2 are both waiting on the current grace period.
+The <tt>->nxttail[RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL]</tt> array element
+references the same RCU callback that <tt>->nxttail[RCU_WAIT_TAIL]</tt>
+does, which indicates that there are no callbacks waiting on the next
+RCU grace period.
+The <tt>->nxttail[RCU_NEXT_TAIL]</tt> array element references
+CB 4's <tt>->next</tt> pointer, indicating that all the
+remaining RCU callbacks have not yet been assigned to an RCU grace
+period.
+Note that the <tt>->nxttail[RCU_NEXT_TAIL]</tt> array element
+always references the last RCU callback's <tt>->next</tt> pointer
+unless the callback list is empty, in which case it references
+the <tt>->nxtlist</tt> pointer.
+
+</p><p>CPUs advance their callbacks from the
+<tt>RCU_NEXT_TAIL</tt> to the <tt>RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL</tt> to the
+<tt>RCU_WAIT_TAIL</tt> to the <tt>RCU_DONE_TAIL</tt> list segments
+as grace periods advance.
+The CPU advances the callbacks in its <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure
+whenever it notices that another RCU grace period has completed.
+The CPU detects the completion of an RCU grace period by noticing
+that the value of its <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's
+<tt>->completed</tt> field differs from that of its leaf
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure.
+Recall that each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's
+<tt>->completed</tt> field is updated at the end of each
+grace period.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->nxtcompleted[]</tt> array records grace-period
+numbers corresponding to the list segments.
+This allows CPUs that go idle for extended periods to determine
+which of their callbacks are ready to be invoked after reawakening.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->qlen</tt> counter contains the number of
+callbacks in <tt>->nxtlist</tt>, and the
+<tt>->qlen_lazy</tt> contains the number of those callbacks that
+are known to only free memory, and whose invocation can therefore
+be safely deferred.
+The <tt>->qlen_last_fqs_check</tt> and
+<tt>->n_force_qs_snap</tt> coordinate the forcing of quiescent
+states from <tt>call_rcu()</tt> and friends when callback
+lists grow excessively long.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->n_cbs_invoked</tt>,
+<tt>->n_cbs_orphaned</tt>, and <tt>->n_cbs_adopted</tt>
+fields count the number of callbacks invoked,
+sent to other CPUs when this CPU goes offline,
+and received from other CPUs when those other CPUs go offline.
+Finally, the <tt>->blimit</tt> counter is the maximum number of
+RCU callbacks that may be invoked at a given time.
+
+<h5>Dyntick-Idle Handling</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 int dynticks_snap;
+ 2 unsigned long dynticks_fqs;
+</pre>
+
+The <tt>->dynticks_snap</tt> field is used to take a snapshot
+of the corresponding CPU's dyntick-idle state when forcing
+quiescent states, and is therefore accessed from other CPUs.
+Finally, the <tt>->dynticks_fqs</tt> field is used to
+count the number of times this CPU is determined to be in
+dyntick-idle state, and is used for tracing and debugging purposes.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_dynticks Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> maintains the per-CPU dyntick-idle state
+for the corresponding CPU.
+Unlike the other structures, <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> is not
+replicated over the different flavors of RCU.
+The fields in this structure may be accessed only from the corresponding
+CPU (and from tracing) unless otherwise stated.
+Its fields are as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 int dynticks_nesting;
+ 2 int dynticks_nmi_nesting;
+ 3 atomic_t dynticks;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->dynticks_nesting</tt> field counts the
+nesting depth of normal interrupts.
+In addition, this counter is incremented when exiting dyntick-idle
+mode and decremented when entering it.
+This counter can therefore be thought of as counting the number
+of reasons why this CPU cannot be permitted to enter dyntick-idle
+mode, aside from non-maskable interrupts (NMIs).
+NMIs are counted by the <tt>->dynticks_nmi_nesting</tt>
+field, except that NMIs that interrupt non-dyntick-idle execution
+are not counted.
+
+</p><p>Finally, the <tt>->dynticks</tt> field counts the corresponding
+CPU's transitions to and from dyntick-idle mode, so that this counter
+has an even value when the CPU is in dyntick-idle mode and an odd
+value otherwise.
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 6"><b>Quick Quiz 6</b>:</a>
+Why not just count all NMIs?
+Wouldn't that be simpler and less error prone?
+<br><a href="#qq6answer">Answer</a>
+
+</p><p>Additional fields are present for some special-purpose
+builds, and are discussed separately.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_head Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_head</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>Each <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure represents an RCU callback.
+These structures are normally embedded within RCU-protected data
+structures whose algorithms use asynchronous grace periods.
+In contrast, when using algorithms that block waiting for RCU grace periods,
+RCU users need not provide <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure has fields as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct rcu_head *next;
+ 2 void (*func)(struct rcu_head *head);
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->next</tt> field is used
+to link the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures together in the
+lists within the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures.
+The <tt>->func</tt> field is a pointer to the function
+to be called when the callback is ready to be invoked, and
+this function is passed a pointer to the <tt>rcu_head</tt>
+structure.
+However, <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> uses the <tt>->func</tt>
+field to record the offset of the <tt>rcu_head</tt>
+structure within the enclosing RCU-protected data structure.
+
+</p><p>Both of these fields are used internally by RCU.
+From the viewpoint of RCU users, this structure is an
+opaque “cookie”.
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 7"><b>Quick Quiz 7</b>:</a>
+Given that the callback function <tt>->func</tt>
+is passed a pointer to the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure,
+how is that function supposed to find the beginning of the
+enclosing RCU-protected data structure?
+<br><a href="#qq7answer">Answer</a>
+
+<h3><a name="RCU-Specific Fields in the task_struct Structure">
+RCU-Specific Fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> implementation uses some
+additional fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> structure:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 #ifdef CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU
+ 2 int rcu_read_lock_nesting;
+ 3 union rcu_special rcu_read_unlock_special;
+ 4 struct list_head rcu_node_entry;
+ 5 struct rcu_node *rcu_blocked_node;
+ 6 #endif /* #ifdef CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU */
+ 7 #ifdef CONFIG_TASKS_RCU
+ 8 unsigned long rcu_tasks_nvcsw;
+ 9 bool rcu_tasks_holdout;
+10 struct list_head rcu_tasks_holdout_list;
+11 int rcu_tasks_idle_cpu;
+12 #endif /* #ifdef CONFIG_TASKS_RCU */
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->rcu_read_lock_nesting</tt> field records the
+nesting level for RCU read-side critical sections, and
+the <tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt> field is a bitmask
+that records special conditions that require <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>
+to do additional work.
+The <tt>->rcu_node_entry</tt> field is used to form lists of
+tasks that have blocked within preemptible-RCU read-side critical
+sections and the <tt>->rcu_blocked_node</tt> field references
+the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure whose list this task is a member of,
+or <tt>NULL</tt> if it is not blocked within a preemptible-RCU
+read-side critical section.
+
+<p>The <tt>->rcu_tasks_nvcsw</tt> field tracks the number of
+voluntary context switches that this task had undergone at the
+beginning of the current tasks-RCU grace period,
+<tt>->rcu_tasks_holdout</tt> is set if the current tasks-RCU
+grace period is waiting on this task, <tt>->rcu_tasks_holdout_list</tt>
+is a list element enqueuing this task on the holdout list,
+and <tt>->rcu_tasks_idle_cpu</tt> tracks which CPU this
+idle task is running, but only if the task is currently running,
+that is, if the CPU is currently idle.
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 8"><b>Quick Quiz 8</b>:</a>
+Why is <tt>->rcu_boosted</tt> required, given that there is
+a <tt>RCU_READ_UNLOCK_BOOSTED</tt> bit in
+<tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt>?
+<br><a href="#qq8answer">Answer</a>
+
+<h3><a name="Accessor Functions">
+Accessor Functions</a></h3>
+
+<p>The following listing shows the
+<tt>rcu_get_root()</tt>, <tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first</tt>,
+<tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt>, and
+<tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> function and macros:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 static struct rcu_node *rcu_get_root(struct rcu_state *rsp)
+ 2 {
+ 3 return &rsp->node[0];
+ 4 }
+ 5
+ 6 #define rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first(rsp, rnp) \
+ 7 for ((rnp) = &(rsp)->node[0]; \
+ 8 (rnp) < &(rsp)->node[NUM_RCU_NODES]; (rnp)++)
+ 9
+ 10 #define rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first(rsp, rnp) \
+ 11 for ((rnp) = &(rsp)->node[0]; \
+ 12 (rnp) < (rsp)->level[NUM_RCU_LVLS - 1]; (rnp)++)
+ 13
+ 14 #define rcu_for_each_leaf_node(rsp, rnp) \
+ 15 for ((rnp) = (rsp)->level[NUM_RCU_LVLS - 1]; \
+ 16 (rnp) < &(rsp)->node[NUM_RCU_NODES]; (rnp)++)
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_get_root()</tt> simply returns a pointer to the
+first element of the specified <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's
+<tt>->node[]</tt> array, which is the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure.
+
+</p><p>As noted earlier, the <tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first()</tt>
+macro takes advantage of the layout of the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structures in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's
+<tt>->node[]</tt> array, performing a breadth-first traversal by
+simply traversing the array in order.
+The <tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> macro operates
+similarly, but traverses only the first part of the array, thus excluding
+the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures.
+Finally, the <tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> macro traverses only
+the last part of the array, thus traversing only the leaf
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures.
+
+<p><a name="Quick Quiz 9"><b>Quick Quiz 9</b>:</a>
+What do <tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> and
+<tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> do if the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree
+contains only a single node?
+<br><a href="#qq9answer">Answer</a>
+
+<h3><a name="Summary">
+Summary</a></h3>
+
+So each flavor of RCU is represented by an <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure,
+which contains a combining tree of <tt>rcu_node</tt> and
+<tt>rcu_data</tt> structures.
+Finally, in <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt> kernels, each CPU's dyntick-idle
+state is tracked by an <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure.
+
+If you made it this far, you are well prepared to read the code
+walkthroughs in the other articles in this series.
+
+<h3><a name="Acknowledgments">
+Acknowledgments</a></h3>
+
+I owe thanks to Cyrill Gorcunov, Mathieu Desnoyers, Dhaval Giani, Paul
+Turner, Abhishek Srivastava, Matt Kowalczyk, and Serge Hallyn
+for helping me get this document into a more human-readable state.
+
+<h3><a name="Legal Statement">
+Legal Statement</a></h3>
+
+<p>This work represents the view of the author and does not necessarily
+represent the view of IBM.
+
+</p><p>Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds.
+
+</p><p>Other company, product, and service names may be trademarks or
+service marks of others.
+
+
+<h3><a name="Answers to Quick Quizzes">
+Answers to Quick Quizzes</a></h3>
+
+<a name="qq1answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 1</b>:
+Why isn't the fanout at the leaves also 64?
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+Because there are more types of events that affect the leaf-level
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures than further up the tree.
+Therefore, if the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures have
+fanout of 64, the contention on these structures' <tt>->structures</tt>
+becomes excessive.
+Experimentation on a wide variety of systems has shown that a fanout
+of 16 works well for the leaves of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree.
+
+</p><p>Of course, further experience with systems having hundreds or
+thousands of CPUs may demonstrate that the fanout for the non-leaf
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures must also be reduced.
+Such reduction can be easily carried out when and if it proves necessary.
+In the meantime, if you are using such a system and running into
+contention problems on the non-leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures,
+you may use the <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> kernel configuration
+parameter to reduce the non-leaf fanout as needed.
+
+</p><p>Kernels built for systems with strong NUMA characteristics might
+also need to adjust <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> so that the
+domains of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures align with hardware
+boundaries.
+However, there has thus far been no need for this.
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%201"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 1</b>.</a>
+
+<a name="qq2answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 2</b>:
+Wait a minute!
+You said that the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures formed a tree,
+but they are declared as a flat array!
+What gives?
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+The tree is laid out in the array.
+The first node In the array is the head, the next set of nodes in the
+array are children of the head node, and so on until the last set of
+nodes in the array are the leaves.
+
+</p><p>See the following diagrams to see how this works.
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%202"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 2</b>.</a>
+
+<a name="qq3answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 3</b>:
+Given that this array represents a tree, why can't the diagram that
+includes the <tt>->level</tt> array be planar?
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+It can be planar, it is just that it looks uglier that way.
+But don't take my word for it, draw it yourself!
+
+</p><p>But if you draw the tree to be tree-shaped rather than
+array-shaped, it is easy to draw a planar representation:
+
+</p><p><img src="TreeLevel.svg" alt="TreeLevel.svg" width="60%">
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%203"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 3</b>.</a>
+
+<a name="qq4answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 4</b>:
+Why are these bitmasks protected by locking?
+Come on, haven't you heard of atomic instructions???
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+Lockless grace-period computation! Such a tantalizing possibility!
+
+</p><p>But consider the following sequence of events:
+
+<ol>
+<li> CPU 0 has been in dyntick-idle mode for quite
+ some time.
+ When it wakes up, it notices that the current RCU
+ grace period needs it to report in, so it sets a
+ flag where the scheduling clock interrupt will find it.
+<li> Meanwhile, CPU 1 is running <tt>force_quiescent_state()</tt>,
+ and notices that CPU 0 has been in dyntick idle mode,
+ which qualifies as an extended quiescent state.
+<li> CPU 0's scheduling clock interrupt fires in the
+ middle of an RCU read-side critical section, and notices
+ that the RCU core needs something, so commences RCU softirq
+ processing.
+<li> CPU 0's softirq handler executes and is just about ready
+ to report its quiescent state up the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+ tree.
+<li> But CPU 1 beats it to the punch, completing the current
+ grace period and starting a new one.
+<li> CPU 0 now reports its quiescent state for the wrong
+ grace period.
+ That grace period might now end before the RCU read-side
+ critical section.
+ If that happens, disaster will ensue.
+</ol>
+
+<p>So the locking is absolutely required in order to coordinate clearing
+of the bits with the grace-period numbers in <tt>->gpnum</tt>
+and <tt>->completed</tt>.
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%204"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 4</b>.</a>
+
+<a name="qq5answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 5</b>:
+All this replication of the grace period numbers can only cause
+massive confusion.
+Why not just keep a global pair of counters and be done with it???
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+Because if there was only a single global pair of grace-period numbers,
+there would need to be a single global lock to allow safely accessing
+and updating them.
+And if we are not going to have a single global lock, we need to carefully
+manage the numbers on a per-node basis.
+Recall from the answer to a previous Quick Quiz that the consequences
+of applying a previously sampled quiescent state to the wrong
+grace period are quite severe.
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%205"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 5</b>.</a>
+
+<a name="qq6answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 6</b>:
+Why not just count all NMIs?
+Wouldn't that be simpler and less error prone?
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+It seems simpler only until you think hard about how to go about
+updating the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure's
+<tt>->dynticks</tt> field.
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%206"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 6</b>.</a>
+
+<a name="qq7answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 7</b>:
+Given that the callback function <tt>->func</tt>
+is passed a pointer to the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure,
+how is that function supposed to find the beginning of the
+enclosing RCU-protected data structure?
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+In actual practice, there is a separate callback function per
+type of RCU-protected data structure.
+The callback function can therefore use the <tt>container_of()</tt>
+macro in the Linux kernel (or other pointer-manipulation facilities
+in other software environments) to find the beginning of the
+enclosing structure.
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%207"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 7</b>.</a>
+
+<a name="qq8answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 8</b>:
+Why is <tt>->rcu_boosted</tt> required, given that there is
+a <tt>RCU_READ_UNLOCK_BOOSTED</tt> bit in
+<tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt>?
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+The <tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt> field may only be
+updated by the task itself.
+By definition, RCU priority boosting must be carried out by some
+other task.
+This other task cannot safely update the boosted task's
+<tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt> field without the use of
+expensive atomic instructions.
+The <tt>->rcu_boosted</tt> field is therefore used by the
+boosting task to let the boosted task know that it has been boosted.
+The boosted task makes use of the
+<tt>RCU_READ_UNLOCK_BOOSTED</tt> bit in
+<tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt>
+when deboosting itself.
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%208"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 8</b>.</a>
+
+<a name="qq9answer"></a>
+<p><b>Quick Quiz 9</b>:
+What do <tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> and
+<tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> do if the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree
+contains only a single node?
+
+
+</p><p><b>Answer</b>:
+In the single-node case,
+<tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> is a no-op
+and <tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> traverses the single node.
+
+
+</p><p><a href="#Quick%20Quiz%209"><b>Back to Quick Quiz 9</b>.</a>
+
+
+
+</body></html>
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+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"
+ "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
+ <html>
+ <head><title>A Tour Through TREE_RCU's Data Structures [LWN.net]</title>
+ <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
+
+ <p>January 27, 2016</p>
+ <p>This article was contributed by Paul E. McKenney</p>
+
+<h3>Introduction</h3>
+
+This document describes RCU's major data structures and their relationship
+to each other.
+
+<ol>
+<li> <a href="#Data-Structure Relationships">
+ Data-Structure Relationships</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_state Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_state</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_node Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_node</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_data Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_data</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_dynticks Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#The rcu_head Structure">
+ The <tt>rcu_head</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#RCU-Specific Fields in the task_struct Structure">
+ RCU-Specific Fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> Structure</a>
+<li> <a href="#Accessor Functions">
+ Accessor Functions</a>
+</ol>
+
+At the end we have the
+<a href="#Answers to Quick Quizzes">answers to the quick quizzes</a>.
+
+<h3><a name="Data-Structure Relationships">Data-Structure Relationships</a></h3>
+
+<p>RCU is for all intents and purposes a large state machine, and its
+data structures maintain the state in such a way as to allow RCU readers
+to execute extremely quickly, while also processing the RCU grace periods
+requested by updaters in an efficient and extremely scalable fashion.
+The efficiency and scalability of RCU updaters is provided primarily
+by a combining tree, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCU.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCU.svg" width="30%">
+
+</p><p>This diagram shows an enclosing <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure
+containing a tree of <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures.
+Each leaf node of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree has up to 16
+<tt>rcu_data</tt> structures associated with it, so that there
+are <tt>NR_CPUS</tt> number of <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures,
+one for each possible CPU.
+This structure is adjusted at boot time, if needed, to handle the
+common case where <tt>nr_cpu_ids</tt> is much less than
+<tt>NR_CPUs</tt>.
+For example, a number of Linux distributions set <tt>NR_CPUs=4096</tt>,
+which results in a three-level <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree.
+If the actual hardware has only 16 CPUs, RCU will adjust itself
+at boot time, resulting in an <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree with only a single node.
+
+</p><p>The purpose of this combining tree is to allow per-CPU events
+such as quiescent states, dyntick-idle transitions,
+and CPU hotplug operations to be processed efficiently
+and scalably.
+Quiescent states are recorded by the per-CPU <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures,
+and other events are recorded by the leaf-level <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structures.
+All of these events are combined at each level of the tree until finally
+grace periods are completed at the tree's root <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure.
+A grace period can be completed at the root once every CPU
+(or, in the case of <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt>, task)
+has passed through a quiescent state.
+Once a grace period has completed, record of that fact is propagated
+back down the tree.
+
+</p><p>As can be seen from the diagram, on a 64-bit system
+a two-level tree with 64 leaves can accommodate 1,024 CPUs, with a fanout
+of 64 at the root and a fanout of 16 at the leaves.
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+Why isn't the fanout at the leaves also 64?
+<p>@@QQA@@
+Because there are more types of events that affect the leaf-level
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures than further up the tree.
+Therefore, if the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures have
+fanout of 64, the contention on these structures' <tt>->structures</tt>
+becomes excessive.
+Experimentation on a wide variety of systems has shown that a fanout
+of 16 works well for the leaves of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree.
+
+</p><p>Of course, further experience with systems having hundreds or
+thousands of CPUs may demonstrate that the fanout for the non-leaf
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures must also be reduced.
+Such reduction can be easily carried out when and if it proves necessary.
+In the meantime, if you are using such a system and running into
+contention problems on the non-leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures,
+you may use the <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> kernel configuration
+parameter to reduce the non-leaf fanout as needed.
+
+</p><p>Kernels built for systems with strong NUMA characteristics might
+also need to adjust <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> so that the
+domains of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures align with hardware
+boundaries.
+However, there has thus far been no need for this.
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+</p><p>If your system has more than 1,024 CPUs (or more than 512 CPUs on
+a 32-bit system), then RCU will automatically add more levels to the
+tree.
+For example, if you are crazy enough to build a 64-bit system with 65,536
+CPUs, RCU would configure the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree as follows:
+
+</p><p><img src="HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg" alt="HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg" width="50%">
+
+</p><p>RCU currently permits up to a four-level tree, which on a 64-bit system
+accommodates up to 4,194,304 CPUs, though only a mere 524,288 CPUs for
+32-bit systems.
+On the other hand, you can set <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> to be
+as small as 2 if you wish, which would permit only 16 CPUs, which
+is useful for testing.
+
+</p><p>The Linux kernel actually supports multiple flavors of RCU
+running concurrently, so RCU builds separate data structures for each
+flavor.
+For example, for <tt>CONFIG_TREE_RCU=y</tt> kernels, RCU provides
+rcu_sched and rcu_bh, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCUBH.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCUBH.svg" width="33%">
+
+</p><p>Energy efficiency is increasingly important, and for that
+reason the Linux kernel provides <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt>, which
+turns off the scheduling-clock interrupts on idle CPUs, which in
+turn allows those CPUs to attain deeper sleep states and to consume
+less energy.
+CPUs whose scheduling-clock interrupts have been turned off are
+said to be in <i>dyntick-idle mode</i>.
+RCU must handle dyntick-idle CPUs specially
+because RCU would otherwise wake up each CPU on every grace period,
+which would defeat the whole purpose of <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt>.
+RCU uses the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure to track
+which CPUs are in dyntick idle mode, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCUBHdyntick.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCUBHdyntick.svg" width="33%">
+
+</p><p>However, if a CPU is in dyntick-idle mode, it is in that mode
+for all flavors of RCU.
+Therefore, a single <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure is allocated per
+CPU, and all of a given CPU's <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures share
+that <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>, as shown in the figure.
+
+</p><p>Kernels built with <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> support
+rcu_preempt in addition to rcu_sched and rcu_bh, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntick.svg" alt="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntick.svg" width="35%">
+
+</p><p>RCU updaters wait for normal grace periods by registering
+RCU callbacks, either directly via <tt>call_rcu()</tt> and
+friends (namely <tt>call_rcu_bh()</tt> and <tt>call_rcu_sched()</tt>),
+there being a separate interface per flavor of RCU)
+or indirectly via <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> and friends.
+RCU callbacks are represented by <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures,
+which are queued on <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures while they are
+waiting for a grace period to elapse, as shown in the following figure:
+
+</p><p><img src="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntickCB.svg" alt="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntickCB.svg" width="40%">
+
+</p><p>This figure shows how <tt>TREE_RCU</tt>'s and
+<tt>TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt>'s major data structures are related.
+Lesser data structures will be introduced with the algorithms that
+make use of them.
+
+</p><p>Note that each of the data structures in the above figure has
+its own synchronization:
+
+<p><ol>
+<li> Each <tt>rcu_state</tt> structures has a lock and a mutex,
+ and some fields are protected by the corresponding root
+ <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's lock.
+<li> Each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure has a spinlock.
+<li> The fields in <tt>rcu_data</tt> are private to the corresponding
+ CPU, although a few can be read and written by other CPUs.
+<li> Similarly, the fields in <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> are private
+ to the corresponding CPU, although a few can be read by
+ other CPUs.
+</ol>
+
+<p>It is important to note that different data structures can have
+very different ideas about the state of RCU at any given time.
+For but one example, awareness of the start or end of a given RCU
+grace period propagates slowly through the data structures.
+This slow propagation is absolutely necessary for RCU to have good
+read-side performance.
+If this balkanized implementation seems foreign to you, one useful
+trick is to consider each instance of these data structures to be
+a different person, each having the usual slightly different
+view of reality.
+
+</p><p>The general role of each of these data structures is as
+follows:
+
+</p><ol>
+<li> <tt>rcu_state</tt>:
+ This structure forms the interconnection between the
+ <tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures,
+ tracks grace periods, serves as short-term repository
+ for callbacks orphaned by CPU-hotplug events,
+ maintains <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> state,
+ tracks expedited grace-period state,
+ and maintains state used to force quiescent states when
+ grace periods extend too long,
+<li> <tt>rcu_node</tt>: This structure forms the combining
+ tree that propagates quiescent-state
+ information from the leaves to the root, and also propagates
+ grace-period information from the root to the leaves.
+ It provides local copies of the grace-period state in order
+ to allow this information to be accessed in a synchronized
+ manner without suffering the scalability limitations that
+ would otherwise be imposed by global locking.
+ In <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> kernels, it manages the lists
+ of tasks that have blocked while in their current
+ RCU read-side critical section.
+ In <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> with
+ <tt>CONFIG_RCU_BOOST</tt>, it manages the
+ per-<tt>rcu_node</tt> priority-boosting
+ kernel threads (kthreads) and state.
+ Finally, it records CPU-hotplug state in order to determine
+ which CPUs should be ignored during a given grace period.
+<li> <tt>rcu_data</tt>: This per-CPU structure is the
+ focus of quiescent-state detection and RCU callback queuing.
+ It also tracks its relationship to the corresponding leaf
+ <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure to allow more-efficient
+ propagation of quiescent states up the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+ combining tree.
+ Like the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, it provides a local
+ copy of the grace-period information to allow for-free
+ synchronized
+ access to this information from the corresponding CPU.
+ Finally, this structure records past dyntick-idle state
+ for the corresponding CPU and also tracks statistics.
+<li> <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>:
+ This per-CPU structure tracks the current dyntick-idle
+ state for the corresponding CPU.
+ Unlike the other three structures, the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>
+ structure is not replicated per RCU flavor.
+<li> <tt>rcu_head</tt>:
+ This structure represents RCU callbacks, and is the
+ only structure allocated and managed by RCU users.
+ The <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure is normally embedded
+ within the RCU-protected data structure.
+</ol>
+
+<p>If all you wanted from this article was a general notion of how
+RCU's data structures are related, you are done.
+Otherwise, each of the following sections give more details on
+the <tt>rcu_state</tt>, <tt>rcu_node</tt>, <tt>rcu_data</tt>,
+and <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> data structures.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_state Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_state</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is the base structure that
+represents a flavor of RCU.
+This structure forms the interconnection between the
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures,
+tracks grace periods, contains the lock used to
+synchronize with CPU-hotplug events,
+and maintains state used to force quiescent states when
+grace periods extend too long,
+
+</p><p>A few of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's fields are discussed,
+singly and in groups, in the following sections.
+The more specialized fields are covered in the discussion of their
+use.
+
+<h5>Relationship to rcu_node and rcu_data Structures</h5>
+
+This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct rcu_node node[NUM_RCU_NODES];
+ 2 struct rcu_node *level[NUM_RCU_LVLS + 1];
+ 3 struct rcu_data __percpu *rda;
+</pre>
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+Wait a minute!
+You said that the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures formed a tree,
+but they are declared as a flat array!
+What gives?
+<p>@@QQA@@
+The tree is laid out in the array.
+The first node In the array is the head, the next set of nodes in the
+array are children of the head node, and so on until the last set of
+nodes in the array are the leaves.
+
+</p><p>See the following diagrams to see how this works.
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+</p><p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree is embedded into the
+<tt>->node[]</tt> array as shown in the following figure:
+
+</p><p><img src="TreeMapping.svg" alt="TreeMapping.svg" width="40%">
+
+</p><p>One interesting consequence of this mapping is that a
+breadth-first traversal of the tree is implemented as a simple
+linear scan of the array, which is in fact what the
+<tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first()</tt> macro does.
+This macro is used at the beginning and ends of grace periods.
+
+</p><p>Each entry of the <tt>->level</tt> array references
+the first <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure on the corresponding level
+of the tree, for example, as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="TreeMappingLevel.svg" alt="TreeMappingLevel.svg" width="40%">
+
+</p><p>The zero<sup>th</sup> element of the array references the root
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, the first element references the
+first child of the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>, and finally the second
+element references the first leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure.
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+Given that this array represents a tree, why can't the diagram that
+includes the <tt>->level</tt> array be planar?
+<p>@@QQA@@
+It can be planar, it is just that it looks uglier that way.
+But don't take my word for it, draw it yourself!
+
+</p><p>But if you draw the tree to be tree-shaped rather than
+array-shaped, it is easy to draw a planar representation:
+
+</p><p><img src="TreeLevel.svg" alt="TreeLevel.svg" width="60%">
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+</p><p>Finally, the <tt>->rda</tt> field references a per-CPU
+pointer to the corresponding CPU's <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure.
+
+</p><p>All of these fields are constant once initialization is complete,
+and therefore need no protection.
+
+<h5>Grace-Period Tracking</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long gpnum;
+ 2 unsigned long completed;
+</pre>
+
+<p>RCU grace periods are numbered, and
+the <tt>->gpnum</tt> field contains the number of the grace
+period that started most recently.
+The <tt>->completed</tt> field contains the number of the
+grace period that completed most recently.
+If the two fields are equal, the RCU grace period that most recently
+started has already completed, and therefore the corresponding
+flavor of RCU is idle.
+If <tt>->gpnum</tt> is one greater than <tt>->completed</tt>,
+then <tt>->gpnum</tt> gives the number of the current RCU
+grace period, which has not yet completed.
+Any other combination of values indicates that something is broken.
+These two fields are protected by the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>'s
+<tt>->lock</tt> field.
+
+</p><p>There are <tt>->gpnum</tt> and <tt>->completed</tt> fields
+in the <tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures
+as well.
+The fields in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure represent the
+most current values, and those of the other structures are compared
+in order to detect the start of a new grace period in a distributed
+fashion.
+The values flow from <tt>rcu_state</tt> to <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+(down the tree from the root to the leaves) to <tt>rcu_data</tt>.
+
+<h5>Miscellaneous</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long gp_max;
+ 2 char abbr;
+ 3 char *name;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->gp_max</tt> field tracks the duration of the longest
+grace period in jiffies.
+It is protected by the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>'s <tt>->lock</tt>.
+
+<p>The <tt>->name</tt> field points to the name of the RCU flavor
+(for example, “rcu_sched”), and is constant.
+The <tt>->abbr</tt> field contains a one-character abbreviation,
+for example, “s” for RCU-sched.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_node Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_node</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures form the combining
+tree that propagates quiescent-state
+information from the leaves to the root and also that propagates
+grace-period information from the root down to the leaves.
+They provides local copies of the grace-period state in order
+to allow this information to be accessed in a synchronized
+manner without suffering the scalability limitations that
+would otherwise be imposed by global locking.
+In <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> kernels, they manage the lists
+of tasks that have blocked while in their current
+RCU read-side critical section.
+In <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> with
+<tt>CONFIG_RCU_BOOST</tt>, they manage the
+per-<tt>rcu_node</tt> priority-boosting
+kernel threads (kthreads) and state.
+Finally, they record CPU-hotplug state in order to determine
+which CPUs should be ignored during a given grace period.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's fields are discussed,
+singly and in groups, in the following sections.
+
+<h5>Connection to Combining Tree</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct rcu_node *parent;
+ 2 u8 level;
+ 3 u8 grpnum;
+ 4 unsigned long grpmask;
+ 5 int grplo;
+ 6 int grphi;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->parent</tt> pointer references the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+one level up in the tree, and is <tt>NULL</tt> for the root
+<tt>rcu_node</tt>.
+The RCU implementation makes heavy use of this field to push quiescent
+states up the tree.
+The <tt>->level</tt> field gives the level in the tree, with
+the root being at level zero, its children at level one, and so on.
+The <tt>->grpnum</tt> field gives this node's position within
+the children of its parent, so this number can range between 0 and 31
+on 32-bit systems and between 0 and 63 on 64-bit systems.
+The <tt>->level</tt> and <tt>->grpnum</tt> fields are
+used only during initialization and for tracing.
+The <tt>->grpmask</tt> field is the bitmask counterpart of
+<tt>->grpnum</tt>, and therefore always has exactly one bit set.
+This mask is used to clear the bit corresponding to this <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure in its parent's bitmasks, which are described later.
+Finally, the <tt>->grplo</tt> and <tt>->grphi</tt> fields
+contain the lowest and highest numbered CPU served by this
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, respectively.
+
+</p><p>All of these fields are constant, and thus do not require any
+synchronization.
+
+<h5>Synchronization</h5>
+
+<p>This field of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 raw_spinlock_t lock;
+</pre>
+
+<p>This field is used to protect the remaining fields in this structure,
+unless otherwise stated.
+That said, all of the fields in this structure can be accessed without
+locking for tracing purposes.
+Yes, this can result in confusing traces, but better some tracing confusion
+than to be heisenbugged out of existence.
+
+<h5>Grace-Period Tracking</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long gpnum;
+ 2 unsigned long completed;
+</pre>
+
+<p>These fields are the counterparts of the fields of the same name in
+the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure.
+They each may lag up to one behind their <tt>rcu_state</tt>
+counterparts.
+If a given <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->gpnum</tt> and
+<tt>->complete</tt> fields are equal, then this <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure believes that RCU is idle.
+Otherwise, as with the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure,
+the <tt>->gpnum</tt> field will be one greater than the
+<tt>->complete</tt> fields, with <tt>->gpnum</tt>
+indicating which grace period this <tt>rcu_node</tt> believes
+is still being waited for.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>>gpnum</tt> field of each <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure is updated at the beginning
+of each grace period, and the <tt>->completed</tt> fields are
+updated at the end of each grace period.
+
+<h5>Quiescent-State Tracking</h5>
+
+<p>These fields manage the propagation of quiescent states up the
+combining tree.
+
+</p><p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure has fields
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long qsmask;
+ 2 unsigned long expmask;
+ 3 unsigned long qsmaskinit;
+ 4 unsigned long expmaskinit;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->qsmask</tt> field tracks which of this
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children still need to report
+quiescent states for the current normal grace period.
+Such children will have a value of 1 in their corresponding bit.
+Note that the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures should be
+thought of as having <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures as their
+children.
+Similarly, the <tt>->expmask</tt> field tracks which
+of this <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children still need to report
+quiescent states for the current expedited grace period.
+An expedited grace period has
+the same conceptual properties as a normal grace period, but the
+expedited implementation accepts extreme CPU overhead to obtain
+much lower grace-period latency, for example, consuming a few
+tens of microseconds worth of CPU time to reduce grace-period
+duration from milliseconds to tens of microseconds.
+The <tt>->qsmaskinit</tt> field tracks which of this
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children cover for at least
+one online CPU.
+This mask is used to initialize <tt>->qsmask</tt>,
+and <tt>->expmaskinit</tt> is used to initialize
+<tt>->expmask</tt> and the beginning of the
+normal and expedited grace periods, respectively.
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+Why are these bitmasks protected by locking?
+Come on, haven't you heard of atomic instructions???
+<p>@@QQA@@
+Lockless grace-period computation! Such a tantalizing possibility!
+
+</p><p>But consider the following sequence of events:
+
+<ol>
+<li> CPU 0 has been in dyntick-idle mode for quite
+ some time.
+ When it wakes up, it notices that the current RCU
+ grace period needs it to report in, so it sets a
+ flag where the scheduling clock interrupt will find it.
+<li> Meanwhile, CPU 1 is running <tt>force_quiescent_state()</tt>,
+ and notices that CPU 0 has been in dyntick idle mode,
+ which qualifies as an extended quiescent state.
+<li> CPU 0's scheduling clock interrupt fires in the
+ middle of an RCU read-side critical section, and notices
+ that the RCU core needs something, so commences RCU softirq
+ processing.
+<li> CPU 0's softirq handler executes and is just about ready
+ to report its quiescent state up the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+ tree.
+<li> But CPU 1 beats it to the punch, completing the current
+ grace period and starting a new one.
+<li> CPU 0 now reports its quiescent state for the wrong
+ grace period.
+ That grace period might now end before the RCU read-side
+ critical section.
+ If that happens, disaster will ensue.
+</ol>
+
+<p>So the locking is absolutely required in order to coordinate clearing
+of the bits with the grace-period numbers in <tt>->gpnum</tt>
+and <tt>->completed</tt>.
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+<h5>Blocked-Task Management</h5>
+
+<p><tt>TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> allows tasks to be preempted in the
+midst of their RCU read-side critical sections, and these tasks
+must be tracked explicitly.
+The details of exactly why and how they are tracked will be covered
+in a separate article on RCU read-side processing.
+For now, it is enough to know that the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure tracks them.
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct list_head blkd_tasks;
+ 2 struct list_head *gp_tasks;
+ 3 struct list_head *exp_tasks;
+ 4 bool wait_blkd_tasks;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> field is a list header for
+the list of blocked and preempted tasks.
+As tasks undergo context switches within RCU read-side critical
+sections, their <tt>task_struct</tt> structures are enqueued
+(via the <tt>task_struct</tt>'s <tt>->rcu_node_entry</tt>
+field) onto the head of the <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> list for the
+leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure corresponding to the CPU
+on which the outgoing context switch executed.
+As these tasks later exit their RCU read-side critical sections,
+they remove themselves from the list.
+This list is therefore in reverse time order, so that if one of the tasks
+is blocking the current grace period, all subsequent tasks must
+also be blocking that same grace period.
+Therefore, a single pointer into this list suffices to track
+all tasks blocking a given grace period.
+That pointer is stored in <tt>->gp_tasks</tt> for normal
+grace periods and in <tt>->exp_tasks</tt> for expedited
+grace periods.
+These last two fields are <tt>NULL</tt> if either there is
+no grace period in flight or if there are no blocked tasks
+preventing that grace period from completing.
+If either of these two pointers is referencing a task that
+removes itself from the <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> list,
+then that task must advance the pointer to the next task on
+the list, or set the pointer to <tt>NULL</tt> if there
+are no subsequent tasks on the list.
+
+</p><p>For example, suppose that tasks T1, T2, and T3 are
+all hard-affinitied to the largest-numbered CPU in the system.
+Then if task T1 blocked in an RCU read-side
+critical section, then an expedited grace period started,
+then task T2 blocked in an RCU read-side critical section,
+then a normal grace period started, and finally task 3 blocked
+in an RCU read-side critical section, then the state of the
+last leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's blocked-task list
+would be as shown below:
+
+</p><p><img src="blkd_task.svg" alt="blkd_task.svg" width="60%">
+
+</p><p>Task T1 is blocking both grace periods, task T2 is
+blocking only the normal grace period, and task T3 is blocking
+neither grace period.
+Note that these tasks will not remove themselves from this list
+immediately upon resuming execution.
+They will instead remain on the list until they execute the outermost
+<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> that ends their RCU read-side critical
+section.
+
+<p>
+The <tt>->wait_blkd_tasks</tt> field indicates whether or not
+the current grace period is waiting on a blocked task.
+
+<h5>Sizing the <tt>rcu_node</tt> Array</h5>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> array is sized via a series of
+C-preprocessor expressions as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 #ifdef CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT
+ 2 #define RCU_FANOUT CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT
+ 3 #else
+ 4 # ifdef CONFIG_64BIT
+ 5 # define RCU_FANOUT 64
+ 6 # else
+ 7 # define RCU_FANOUT 32
+ 8 # endif
+ 9 #endif
+10
+11 #ifdef CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF
+12 #define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF
+13 #else
+14 # ifdef CONFIG_64BIT
+15 # define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF 64
+16 # else
+17 # define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF 32
+18 # endif
+19 #endif
+20
+21 #define RCU_FANOUT_1 (RCU_FANOUT_LEAF)
+22 #define RCU_FANOUT_2 (RCU_FANOUT_1 * RCU_FANOUT)
+23 #define RCU_FANOUT_3 (RCU_FANOUT_2 * RCU_FANOUT)
+24 #define RCU_FANOUT_4 (RCU_FANOUT_3 * RCU_FANOUT)
+25
+26 #if NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_1
+27 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 1
+28 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1
+29 # define NUM_RCU_NODES NUM_RCU_LVL_0
+30 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0 }
+31 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0" }
+32 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0" }
+33 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0" }
+34 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_2
+35 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 2
+36 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1
+37 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1)
+38 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1)
+39 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1 }
+40 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1" }
+41 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1" }
+42 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1" }
+43 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_3
+44 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 3
+45 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1
+46 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_2)
+47 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_2 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1)
+48 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1 + NUM_RCU_LVL_2)
+49 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1, NUM_RCU_LVL_2 }
+50 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1", "rcu_node_2" }
+51 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1", "rcu_node_fqs_2" }
+52 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1", "rcu_node_exp_2" }
+53 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_4
+54 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 4
+55 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1
+56 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_3)
+57 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_2 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_2)
+58 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_3 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1)
+59 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1 + NUM_RCU_LVL_2 + NUM_RCU_LVL_3)
+60 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1, NUM_RCU_LVL_2, NUM_RCU_LVL_3 }
+61 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1", "rcu_node_2", "rcu_node_3" }
+62 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1", "rcu_node_fqs_2", "rcu_node_fqs_3" }
+63 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1", "rcu_node_exp_2", "rcu_node_exp_3" }
+64 #else
+65 # error "CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT insufficient for NR_CPUS"
+66 #endif
+</pre>
+
+<p>The maximum number of levels in the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure
+is currently limited to four, as specified by lines 21-24
+and the structure of the subsequent “if” statement.
+For 32-bit systems, this allows 16*32*32*32=524,288 CPUs, which
+should be sufficient for the next few years at least.
+For 64-bit systems, 16*64*64*64=4,194,304 CPUs is allowed, which
+should see us through the next decade or so.
+This four-level tree also allows kernels built with
+<tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT=8</tt> to support up to 4096 CPUs,
+which might be useful in very large systems having eight CPUs per
+socket (but please note that no one has yet shown any measurable
+performance degradation due to misaligned socket and <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+boundaries).
+In addition, building kernels with a full four levels of <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+tree permits better testing of RCU's combining-tree code.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>RCU_FANOUT</tt> symbol controls how many children
+are permitted at each non-leaf level of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree.
+If the <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> Kconfig option is not specified,
+it is set based on the word size of the system, which is also
+the Kconfig default.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt> symbol controls how many CPUs are
+handled by each leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure.
+Experience has shown that allowing a given leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure to handle 64 CPUs, as permitted by the number of bits in
+the <tt>->qsmask</tt> field on a 64-bit system, results in
+excessive contention for the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures'
+<tt>->lock</tt> fields.
+The number of CPUs per leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is therefore
+limited to 16 given the default value of <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt>.
+If <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt> is unspecified, the value
+selected is based on the word size of the system, just as for
+<tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt>.
+Lines 11-19 perform this computation.
+
+</p><p>Lines 21-24 compute the maximum number of CPUs supported by
+a single-level (which contains a single <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure),
+two-level, three-level, and four-level <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree,
+respectively, given the fanout specified by <tt>RCU_FANOUT</tt>
+and <tt>RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt>.
+These numbers of CPUs are retained in the
+<tt>RCU_FANOUT_1</tt>,
+<tt>RCU_FANOUT_2</tt>,
+<tt>RCU_FANOUT_3</tt>, and
+<tt>RCU_FANOUT_4</tt>
+C-preprocessor variables, respectively.
+
+</p><p>These variables are used to control the C-preprocessor <tt>#if</tt>
+statement spanning lines 26-66 that computes the number of
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures required for each level of the tree,
+as well as the number of levels required.
+The number of levels is placed in the <tt>NUM_RCU_LVLS</tt>
+C-preprocessor variable by lines 27, 35, 44, and 54.
+The number of <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures for the topmost level
+of the tree is always exactly one, and this value is unconditionally
+placed into <tt>NUM_RCU_LVL_0</tt> by lines 28, 36, 45, and 55.
+The rest of the levels (if any) of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree
+are computed by dividing the maximum number of CPUs by the
+fanout supported by the number of levels from the current level down,
+rounding up. This computation is performed by lines 37,
+46-47, and 56-58.
+Lines 31-33, 40-42, 50-52, and 62-63 create initializers
+for lockdep lock-class names.
+Finally, lines 64-66 produce an error if the maximum number of
+CPUs is too large for the specified fanout.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_data Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_data</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_data</tt> maintains the per-CPU state for the
+corresponding flavor of RCU.
+The fields in this structure may be accessed only from the corresponding
+CPU (and from tracing) unless otherwise stated.
+This structure is the
+focus of quiescent-state detection and RCU callback queuing.
+It also tracks its relationship to the corresponding leaf
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure to allow more-efficient
+propagation of quiescent states up the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+combining tree.
+Like the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, it provides a local
+copy of the grace-period information to allow for-free
+synchronized
+access to this information from the corresponding CPU.
+Finally, this structure records past dyntick-idle state
+for the corresponding CPU and also tracks statistics.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's fields are discussed,
+singly and in groups, in the following sections.
+
+<h5>Connection to Other Data Structures</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 int cpu;
+ 2 struct rcu_state *rsp;
+ 3 struct rcu_node *mynode;
+ 4 struct rcu_dynticks *dynticks;
+ 5 unsigned long grpmask;
+ 6 bool beenonline;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->cpu</tt> field contains the number of the
+corresponding CPU, the <tt>->rsp</tt> pointer references
+the corresponding <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure (and is most frequently
+used to locate the name of the corresponding flavor of RCU for tracing),
+and the <tt>->mynode</tt> field references the corresponding
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure.
+The <tt>->mynode</tt> is used to propagate quiescent states
+up the combining tree.
+<p>The <tt>->dynticks</tt> pointer references the
+<tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure corresponding to this
+CPU.
+Recall that a single per-CPU instance of the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>
+structure is shared among all flavors of RCU.
+These first four fields are constant and therefore require not
+synchronization.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->grpmask</tt> field indicates the bit in
+the <tt>->mynode->qsmask</tt> corresponding to this
+<tt>rcu_data</tt> structure, and is also used when propagating
+quiescent states.
+The <tt>->beenonline</tt> flag is set whenever the corresponding
+CPU comes online, which means that the debugfs tracing need not dump
+out any <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure for which this flag is not set.
+
+<h5>Quiescent-State and Grace-Period Tracking</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 unsigned long completed;
+ 2 unsigned long gpnum;
+ 3 bool cpu_no_qs;
+ 4 bool core_needs_qs;
+ 5 bool gpwrap;
+ 6 unsigned long rcu_qs_ctr_snap;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>completed</tt> and <tt>gpnum</tt>
+fields are the counterparts of the fields of the same name
+in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> and <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures.
+They may each lag up to one behind their <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+counterparts, but in <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt> and
+<tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_FULL</tt> kernels can lag
+arbitrarily far behind for CPUs in dyntick-idle mode (but these counters
+will catch up upon exit from dyntick-idle mode).
+If a given <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's <tt>->gpnum</tt> and
+<tt>->complete</tt> fields are equal, then this <tt>rcu_data</tt>
+structure believes that RCU is idle.
+Otherwise, as with the <tt>rcu_state</tt> and <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure,
+the <tt>->gpnum</tt> field will be one greater than the
+<tt>->complete</tt> fields, with <tt>->gpnum</tt>
+indicating which grace period this <tt>rcu_data</tt> believes
+is still being waited for.
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+All this replication of the grace period numbers can only cause
+massive confusion.
+Why not just keep a global pair of counters and be done with it???
+<p>@@QQA@@
+Because if there was only a single global pair of grace-period numbers,
+there would need to be a single global lock to allow safely accessing
+and updating them.
+And if we are not going to have a single global lock, we need to carefully
+manage the numbers on a per-node basis.
+Recall from the answer to a previous Quick Quiz that the consequences
+of applying a previously sampled quiescent state to the wrong
+grace period are quite severe.
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->cpu_no_qs</tt> flag indicates that the
+CPU has not yet passed through a quiescent state,
+while the <tt>->core_needs_qs</tt> flag indicates that the
+RCU core needs a quiescent state from the corresponding CPU.
+The <tt>->gpwrap</tt> field indicates that the corresponding
+CPU has remained idle for so long that the <tt>completed</tt>
+and <tt>gpnum</tt> counters are in danger of overflow, which
+will cause the CPU to disregard the values of its counters on
+its next exit from idle.
+Finally, the <tt>rcu_qs_ctr_snap</tt> field is used to detect
+cases where a given operation has resulted in a quiescent state
+for all flavors of RCU, for example, <tt>cond_resched_rcu_qs()</tt>.
+
+<h5>RCU Callback Handling</h5>
+
+<p>In the absence of CPU-hotplug events, RCU callbacks are invoked by
+the same CPU that registered them.
+This is strictly a cache-locality optimization: callbacks can and
+do get invoked on CPUs other than the one that registered them.
+After all, if the CPU that registered a given callback has gone
+offline before the callback can be invoked, there really is no other
+choice.
+
+</p><p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct rcu_head *nxtlist;
+ 2 struct rcu_head **nxttail[RCU_NEXT_SIZE];
+ 3 unsigned long nxtcompleted[RCU_NEXT_SIZE];
+ 4 long qlen_lazy;
+ 5 long qlen;
+ 6 long qlen_last_fqs_check;
+ 7 unsigned long n_force_qs_snap;
+ 8 unsigned long n_cbs_invoked;
+ 9 unsigned long n_cbs_orphaned;
+10 unsigned long n_cbs_adopted;
+11 long blimit;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->nxtlist</tt> pointer and the
+<tt>->nxttail[]</tt> array form a four-segment list with
+older callbacks near the head and newer ones near the tail.
+Each segment contains callbacks with the corresponding relationship
+to the current grace period.
+The pointer out of the end of each of the four segments is referenced
+by the element of the <tt>->nxttail[]</tt> array indexed by
+<tt>RCU_DONE_TAIL</tt> (for callbacks handled by a prior grace period),
+<tt>RCU_WAIT_TAIL</tt> (for callbacks waiting on the current grace period),
+<tt>RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL</tt> (for callbacks that will wait on the next
+grace period), and
+<tt>RCU_NEXT_TAIL</tt> (for callbacks that are not yet associated
+with a specific grace period)
+respectively, as shown in the following figure.
+
+</p><p><img src="nxtlist.svg" alt="nxtlist.svg" width="40%">
+
+</p><p>In this figure, the <tt>->nxtlist</tt> pointer references the
+first
+RCU callback in the list.
+The <tt>->nxttail[RCU_DONE_TAIL]</tt> array element references
+the <tt>->nxtlist</tt> pointer itself, indicating that none
+of the callbacks is ready to invoke.
+The <tt>->nxttail[RCU_WAIT_TAIL]</tt> array element references callback
+CB 2's <tt>->next</tt> pointer, which indicates that
+CB 1 and CB 2 are both waiting on the current grace period.
+The <tt>->nxttail[RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL]</tt> array element
+references the same RCU callback that <tt>->nxttail[RCU_WAIT_TAIL]</tt>
+does, which indicates that there are no callbacks waiting on the next
+RCU grace period.
+The <tt>->nxttail[RCU_NEXT_TAIL]</tt> array element references
+CB 4's <tt>->next</tt> pointer, indicating that all the
+remaining RCU callbacks have not yet been assigned to an RCU grace
+period.
+Note that the <tt>->nxttail[RCU_NEXT_TAIL]</tt> array element
+always references the last RCU callback's <tt>->next</tt> pointer
+unless the callback list is empty, in which case it references
+the <tt>->nxtlist</tt> pointer.
+
+</p><p>CPUs advance their callbacks from the
+<tt>RCU_NEXT_TAIL</tt> to the <tt>RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL</tt> to the
+<tt>RCU_WAIT_TAIL</tt> to the <tt>RCU_DONE_TAIL</tt> list segments
+as grace periods advance.
+The CPU advances the callbacks in its <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure
+whenever it notices that another RCU grace period has completed.
+The CPU detects the completion of an RCU grace period by noticing
+that the value of its <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's
+<tt>->completed</tt> field differs from that of its leaf
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure.
+Recall that each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's
+<tt>->completed</tt> field is updated at the end of each
+grace period.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->nxtcompleted[]</tt> array records grace-period
+numbers corresponding to the list segments.
+This allows CPUs that go idle for extended periods to determine
+which of their callbacks are ready to be invoked after reawakening.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->qlen</tt> counter contains the number of
+callbacks in <tt>->nxtlist</tt>, and the
+<tt>->qlen_lazy</tt> contains the number of those callbacks that
+are known to only free memory, and whose invocation can therefore
+be safely deferred.
+The <tt>->qlen_last_fqs_check</tt> and
+<tt>->n_force_qs_snap</tt> coordinate the forcing of quiescent
+states from <tt>call_rcu()</tt> and friends when callback
+lists grow excessively long.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>->n_cbs_invoked</tt>,
+<tt>->n_cbs_orphaned</tt>, and <tt>->n_cbs_adopted</tt>
+fields count the number of callbacks invoked,
+sent to other CPUs when this CPU goes offline,
+and received from other CPUs when those other CPUs go offline.
+Finally, the <tt>->blimit</tt> counter is the maximum number of
+RCU callbacks that may be invoked at a given time.
+
+<h5>Dyntick-Idle Handling</h5>
+
+<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared
+as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 int dynticks_snap;
+ 2 unsigned long dynticks_fqs;
+</pre>
+
+The <tt>->dynticks_snap</tt> field is used to take a snapshot
+of the corresponding CPU's dyntick-idle state when forcing
+quiescent states, and is therefore accessed from other CPUs.
+Finally, the <tt>->dynticks_fqs</tt> field is used to
+count the number of times this CPU is determined to be in
+dyntick-idle state, and is used for tracing and debugging purposes.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_dynticks Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> maintains the per-CPU dyntick-idle state
+for the corresponding CPU.
+Unlike the other structures, <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> is not
+replicated over the different flavors of RCU.
+The fields in this structure may be accessed only from the corresponding
+CPU (and from tracing) unless otherwise stated.
+Its fields are as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 int dynticks_nesting;
+ 2 int dynticks_nmi_nesting;
+ 3 atomic_t dynticks;
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->dynticks_nesting</tt> field counts the
+nesting depth of normal interrupts.
+In addition, this counter is incremented when exiting dyntick-idle
+mode and decremented when entering it.
+This counter can therefore be thought of as counting the number
+of reasons why this CPU cannot be permitted to enter dyntick-idle
+mode, aside from non-maskable interrupts (NMIs).
+NMIs are counted by the <tt>->dynticks_nmi_nesting</tt>
+field, except that NMIs that interrupt non-dyntick-idle execution
+are not counted.
+
+</p><p>Finally, the <tt>->dynticks</tt> field counts the corresponding
+CPU's transitions to and from dyntick-idle mode, so that this counter
+has an even value when the CPU is in dyntick-idle mode and an odd
+value otherwise.
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+Why not just count all NMIs?
+Wouldn't that be simpler and less error prone?
+<p>@@QQA@@
+It seems simpler only until you think hard about how to go about
+updating the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure's
+<tt>->dynticks</tt> field.
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+</p><p>Additional fields are present for some special-purpose
+builds, and are discussed separately.
+
+<h3><a name="The rcu_head Structure">
+The <tt>rcu_head</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>Each <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure represents an RCU callback.
+These structures are normally embedded within RCU-protected data
+structures whose algorithms use asynchronous grace periods.
+In contrast, when using algorithms that block waiting for RCU grace periods,
+RCU users need not provide <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures.
+
+</p><p>The <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure has fields as follows:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 struct rcu_head *next;
+ 2 void (*func)(struct rcu_head *head);
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->next</tt> field is used
+to link the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures together in the
+lists within the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures.
+The <tt>->func</tt> field is a pointer to the function
+to be called when the callback is ready to be invoked, and
+this function is passed a pointer to the <tt>rcu_head</tt>
+structure.
+However, <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> uses the <tt>->func</tt>
+field to record the offset of the <tt>rcu_head</tt>
+structure within the enclosing RCU-protected data structure.
+
+</p><p>Both of these fields are used internally by RCU.
+From the viewpoint of RCU users, this structure is an
+opaque “cookie”.
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+Given that the callback function <tt>->func</tt>
+is passed a pointer to the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure,
+how is that function supposed to find the beginning of the
+enclosing RCU-protected data structure?
+<p>@@QQA@@
+In actual practice, there is a separate callback function per
+type of RCU-protected data structure.
+The callback function can therefore use the <tt>container_of()</tt>
+macro in the Linux kernel (or other pointer-manipulation facilities
+in other software environments) to find the beginning of the
+enclosing structure.
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+<h3><a name="RCU-Specific Fields in the task_struct Structure">
+RCU-Specific Fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> Structure</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <tt>CONFIG_TREE_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> implementation uses some
+additional fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> structure:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 #ifdef CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU
+ 2 int rcu_read_lock_nesting;
+ 3 union rcu_special rcu_read_unlock_special;
+ 4 struct list_head rcu_node_entry;
+ 5 struct rcu_node *rcu_blocked_node;
+ 6 #endif /* #ifdef CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU */
+ 7 #ifdef CONFIG_TASKS_RCU
+ 8 unsigned long rcu_tasks_nvcsw;
+ 9 bool rcu_tasks_holdout;
+10 struct list_head rcu_tasks_holdout_list;
+11 int rcu_tasks_idle_cpu;
+12 #endif /* #ifdef CONFIG_TASKS_RCU */
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>->rcu_read_lock_nesting</tt> field records the
+nesting level for RCU read-side critical sections, and
+the <tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt> field is a bitmask
+that records special conditions that require <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>
+to do additional work.
+The <tt>->rcu_node_entry</tt> field is used to form lists of
+tasks that have blocked within preemptible-RCU read-side critical
+sections and the <tt>->rcu_blocked_node</tt> field references
+the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure whose list this task is a member of,
+or <tt>NULL</tt> if it is not blocked within a preemptible-RCU
+read-side critical section.
+
+<p>The <tt>->rcu_tasks_nvcsw</tt> field tracks the number of
+voluntary context switches that this task had undergone at the
+beginning of the current tasks-RCU grace period,
+<tt>->rcu_tasks_holdout</tt> is set if the current tasks-RCU
+grace period is waiting on this task, <tt>->rcu_tasks_holdout_list</tt>
+is a list element enqueuing this task on the holdout list,
+and <tt>->rcu_tasks_idle_cpu</tt> tracks which CPU this
+idle task is running, but only if the task is currently running,
+that is, if the CPU is currently idle.
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+Why is <tt>->rcu_boosted</tt> required, given that there is
+a <tt>RCU_READ_UNLOCK_BOOSTED</tt> bit in
+<tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt>?
+<p>@@QQA@@
+The <tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt> field may only be
+updated by the task itself.
+By definition, RCU priority boosting must be carried out by some
+other task.
+This other task cannot safely update the boosted task's
+<tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt> field without the use of
+expensive atomic instructions.
+The <tt>->rcu_boosted</tt> field is therefore used by the
+boosting task to let the boosted task know that it has been boosted.
+The boosted task makes use of the
+<tt>RCU_READ_UNLOCK_BOOSTED</tt> bit in
+<tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt>
+when deboosting itself.
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+<h3><a name="Accessor Functions">
+Accessor Functions</a></h3>
+
+<p>The following listing shows the
+<tt>rcu_get_root()</tt>, <tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first</tt>,
+<tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt>, and
+<tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> function and macros:
+
+<pre>
+ 1 static struct rcu_node *rcu_get_root(struct rcu_state *rsp)
+ 2 {
+ 3 return &rsp->node[0];
+ 4 }
+ 5
+ 6 #define rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first(rsp, rnp) \
+ 7 for ((rnp) = &(rsp)->node[0]; \
+ 8 (rnp) < &(rsp)->node[NUM_RCU_NODES]; (rnp)++)
+ 9
+ 10 #define rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first(rsp, rnp) \
+ 11 for ((rnp) = &(rsp)->node[0]; \
+ 12 (rnp) < (rsp)->level[NUM_RCU_LVLS - 1]; (rnp)++)
+ 13
+ 14 #define rcu_for_each_leaf_node(rsp, rnp) \
+ 15 for ((rnp) = (rsp)->level[NUM_RCU_LVLS - 1]; \
+ 16 (rnp) < &(rsp)->node[NUM_RCU_NODES]; (rnp)++)
+</pre>
+
+<p>The <tt>rcu_get_root()</tt> simply returns a pointer to the
+first element of the specified <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's
+<tt>->node[]</tt> array, which is the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structure.
+
+</p><p>As noted earlier, the <tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first()</tt>
+macro takes advantage of the layout of the <tt>rcu_node</tt>
+structures in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's
+<tt>->node[]</tt> array, performing a breadth-first traversal by
+simply traversing the array in order.
+The <tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> macro operates
+similarly, but traverses only the first part of the array, thus excluding
+the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures.
+Finally, the <tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> macro traverses only
+the last part of the array, thus traversing only the leaf
+<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures.
+
+<p>@@QQ@@
+What do <tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> and
+<tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> do if the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree
+contains only a single node?
+<p>@@QQA@@
+In the single-node case,
+<tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> is a no-op
+and <tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> traverses the single node.
+<p>@@QQE@@
+
+<h3><a name="Summary">
+Summary</a></h3>
+
+So each flavor of RCU is represented by an <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure,
+which contains a combining tree of <tt>rcu_node</tt> and
+<tt>rcu_data</tt> structures.
+Finally, in <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt> kernels, each CPU's dyntick-idle
+state is tracked by an <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure.
+
+If you made it this far, you are well prepared to read the code
+walkthroughs in the other articles in this series.
+
+<h3><a name="Acknowledgments">
+Acknowledgments</a></h3>
+
+I owe thanks to Cyrill Gorcunov, Mathieu Desnoyers, Dhaval Giani, Paul
+Turner, Abhishek Srivastava, Matt Kowalczyk, and Serge Hallyn
+for helping me get this document into a more human-readable state.
+
+<h3><a name="Legal Statement">
+Legal Statement</a></h3>
+
+<p>This work represents the view of the author and does not necessarily
+represent the view of IBM.
+
+</p><p>Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds.
+
+</p><p>Other company, product, and service names may be trademarks or
+service marks of others.
+
+
+<p>@@QQAL@@
+
+
+</body></html>
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--
2.5.2
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